09.02.25: level 2; reading; a schoolmaster’s treachery; Livy’s account [4] language notes [3]; participles [2]; the ablative absolute (a brief introduction)

There are two points in this text which are “knocking at the door” of Level 3, one of which was briefly discussed in an earlier post and one which has never been discussed at all; both involve a longer explanation than is given here, but we can at least begin to look at them; they both matter because they both very frequently occur. We’ll deal with the first one in this post, and the second one in the next post.

the ablative absolute

Take a look at these two sentences:

[i] After killing / having killed the traitor, the commander sent envoys to the camp.

In [i] it was the commander who killed the traitor

[ii] The traitor having been killed, the commander sent envoys to the camp.

In [ii] the commander did not kill the traitor or, to be more precise, that is not what is suggested i.e. the phrase in italics is not connected to the subject of the sentence.

We are looking at [ii].

To express [ii] Latin uses a construction called the ablative absolute and it occurs all the time in the literature; it refers to an event that has / had happened to someone / something before the action in the clause; the phrase stands alone, a “self contained” event which is detached from the rest of the sentence: detached = Latin absolūtus

This is formed primarily with a noun + a participle but other word types can be used; here, we are looking only at the noun + perfect passive participle:

[i] prōditor (noun): traitor + interfectus (perfect passive participle): (having been) killed

• prōditor interfectus │ a killed traitor / a traitor (having been) killed

[ii] Both parts are now put into the ablative case:

• prōditōre interfectō [= ablative absolute], dux lēgātōs ad castra mīsit.

[iii] The standard “grammar book” way of translating this is:

• with X ¦ having been Y-ed
• with the traitor ¦ having been killed

That shows precisely what the phrase conveys. However, we would rarely translate it that way.

[1] The following could translate the phrase in italics:

• The traitor having been killed, the commander sent envoys to the camp.
• After / once / when the traitor had been killed, the commander sent envoys to the camp.

None of those translations suggest the commander did it.

[2] The following do not translate the phrase in bold:

• Having killed the traitor, the commander …
• After he had killed the traitor, the commander …

Those two state that the commander himself killed the traitor, and this is not what the Latin phrase is saying. What the Latin says is that the traitor had been killed before the commander sent envoys; there is no suggestion that the commander had anything to do with it.

Could it be translated as [2] above? Yes, it possibly could but only if the context is clear that it was the commander who had killed the traitor e.g. if that had been stated in a previous sentence. At this stage, however, it is best to stick to the translation versions in [1].

Here is a further example:

Caesar, acceptīs litterīs, nūntium mittit.

[i] litterae (noun): letter + acceptae (perfect passive participle): (having been) received

• litterae acceptae │ a letter (having been) received

[ii] both parts in the ablative case

• litterīs acceptīs = ablative absolute
• (With) the letter having been received, Caesar sends a message.
• After / once / when the letter was received, Caesar sends a message.

Here are the examples from the original text:

[1] arma habemus non adversus eam aetatem, cui etiam captis urbibus parcitur

[i] noun + perfect passive participle:

capta (perfect passive participle): (having been) captured + urbs (noun): city

• urbs capta │ a captured city
• urbēs captae │ captured cities

[ii] both noun and participle put in the ablative case:

captīs urbibus = ablative absolute

• (with) cities having been captured
• after / when / once cities have been captured

arma habemus non adversus eam aetatem, cui etiam captis urbibus parcitur │ We do not use our weapons against those of an age which is spared even when cities have been captured

[2] … deinde eum manibus post tergum inligatis … pueris tradidit

[i] manūs (noun): hands + ligātae (perfect passive participle): tied │ tied (bound) hands

• manūs ligātae │ tied hands

[ii] both noun and participle put in the ablative case:

manibus ligātīs = ablative absolute

• (with) his hands having been bound
• after / when / once his hands had been bound;

… deinde eum manibus post tergum inligatis … pueris tradidit │ He then handed the man, with his hands tied behind his back / his hands having been tied behind his back, over to the boys

There will be more on this later but I think that’s enough to get the idea and get started. It will come up again and again.

The video goes into this in a little more depth if you do want to find out more at this point.

08.02.25: Level 2; the passive voice [32]: the perfect passive [13]; the perfect passive participle as adjective [1]: nominative forms

Image #1: I fully admit to stealing this idea from the Latin tutorial video to which I’ll give a link at the end of this series of posts. I just thought it was such a neat way of conveying the idea.

Compare:

[1]

• The building was shaken by an earthquake.
• Once the cake mix has been slowly stirred, put it onto a baking tray.

Both of those are passive sentences; they describe what is done to the subject.

[2] What about this one?

• James Bond ordered a vodka martini – shaken, not stirred.

“shaken” and “stirred” are not creating passive sentences i.e. they are not used with verb ‘to be’; they function as adjectives describing the vodka martini

Latin can do exactly the same

[1] passive sentences, the perfect passive participle agreeing in gender and number with the subject, and working together with esse:

• Mīles vulnerātus est │ the soldier was / has been wounded
• Puer ā magistrō monitus erat │ the boy had been warned by the teacher
• Servus captus est │ the slave was captured
• Cēna parāta erit │ the dinner have been prepared
• Urbs oppugnata est │ the city was attacked
• Templum in forō aedificatum erat │ a temple had been built in the forum
• Nōs ad convīvium rogātī sumus │ we were invited to the banquet
• Multae navēs dēlētae sunt │ many ships were destroyed

[2] As in English, the perfect passive participle can function without ‘esse’ and act exactly like an adjective

[i] injure – ¦ injured > an injured soldier

vulnerō, vulnerāre, vulnerāvī, ¦ vulnerātus > mīles vulnerātus │ an injured soldier; mīlitēs vulnerātī │ injured soldiers

mīles vulnerātus = an injured soldier [i.e. a soldier ¦ who was / had been injured]

[ii] break – broke – ¦ broken > a broken window

frangō – frangere – frēgī – ¦ frāctus > fenestra frācta │ a broken window; fenestrae frāctae │ broken windows

[iii] destroy – ¦ destroyed > a destroyed town

dēleō – dēlēre – dēlēvī – ¦ dēlētum > oppidum dēlētum │ a destroyed town;  oppida dēlēta │ destroyed towns

They function as adjectives but the key point is that they describe something that already has / had happened to the noun.

An important rule of thumb: when translating anything from Latin into any other language, the translation should adhere to the style of that language. The exercise below does match precisely English and Latin participles. However, that doesn’t always work:

Puella vocāta timēbat │ literally: the summoned girl was afraid; in English it isn’t ‘wrong’ but just sounds ‘odd’ whereas in Latin it doesn’t. It is perfectly possible to rework that into a more fluent style which still conveys the same idea. Context may determine what the best rendering is. Examples:

• Having been summoned, the girl was afraid.
• The girl who had been summoned was afraid.
• The girl, when / after she had been summoned, was afraid.

Again, remember the ‘two stages’ of translation: first go for the literal to ensure you know what the word / phrase actualy means and then pause and think about how it would be best translated in your own language.

Exercise:

Below are ten verbs; focus on the fourth principal part; from the word cloud choose the appropriate participle to complete the Latin phrase and remember that the participle will agree in gender and number

arō, arāre, arāvī, arātus [1]: plough

cēlō, cēlāre, cēlāvī, cēlātus [1]: hide

dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētus [2]: destroy [deriv. delete]

doceō, docēre, docuī, doctus [2]: educate [deriv. doctor]

frangō, frangere, frēgī, frāctus [3]: break [deriv. fraction]

incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus [3]: burn [deriv. incensed]

mūniō, mūnīre, mūnīvī, mūnītus [4]: fortify [deriv. ammunition]

sepeliō, sepelīre, sepelīvī, sepultus [4]: bury

terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus [2]: frighten

vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus [3]: conquer

1. a broken wagon │ plaustrum __________
2. a broken wheel │ rota __________
3. a burned town │ oppidum __________
4. a destroyed temple │ templum __________
5. a fortified town│ urbs __________
6. a ploughed field │ ager __________
7. an educated man  │ vir __________
8. burned towns │ oppida __________
9. conquered soldiers │ mīlitēs __________
10. destroyed cities │ urbēs __________
11. educated men │ virī __________
12. fortified walls │ moenia __________
13. frightened horses │ equī __________
14. hidden gold │ aurum __________
15. hidden money │ pecūnia __________
16. ploughed fields │ agrī __________
17. the buried bodies │ corpora __________
18. the buried body │ corpus __________
19. the conquered commander │ dux __________
20. the frightened boy │ puer __________

arātī; arātus; cēlāta; cēlātum; dēlētae; dēlētum; doctī; doctus; frācta; frāctum; incēnsa; incēnsum; mūnīta; mūnītum; sepulta; sepultum; territī; territus; vīctī; vīctus

07.02.25: Level 1; Colloquia Diverbia Fabellae (Meregazzi) [1]

Conclāve scholāre nostrum

Puerī (puellae), cōnsurgite.

Cōnsīdite; silentium tenēte.

Ego sum magister vester; et imperō vōbīs silentium.

Spectātē hoc conclāve scholāre: hoc conclāve scholāre vestrum est.

Conclāve scholāre quattuor parietēs habet; ostendite eōs; prīmum, secundum, tertium, quārtum.

In conclāvī scholārī sunt quoque lacūnar et pavīmentum.

Pavīmentum sub vestrīs pedibus est: ecce illud.

Lacūnar est suprā capita vestra: ecce illud.

Ā lacūnārī lucerna pendet.

Conclāve scholāre habet iānuam et duās fenestrās.

Puer (puella), ī ad iānuam. Aperī eam.

Optimē; nunc claudē eam.

Redī ad locum tuum; locō tuō sīde.

Num fenestra patet? Spectāte fenestram illam.

Minimē; fenestra illa clausa est.

Complete the Latin phrase by using vocabulary from the text

[1]

Open the door │ __________ iānuam

Close the door │ __________ iānuam

Go to the door │ __________ ad iānuam

Go back to your place │ __________ ad locum tuum

Look at the window │ __________ fenestram

Point out the windows │ __________ fenestrās

Keep quiet │ __________ silentium

Sit down at your place │ __________

Boys, sit down │ Puerī __________

Girls, stand up │ Puellae __________

[2] Match the sentences with the images.

Ā lacūnārī lucerna pendet.

Conclāve scholāre habet duās fenestrās.

Conclāve scholāre quattuor parietēs et ūnam iānuam habet.

Ecce illud.

Iānua aperta est.

Iānua clausa est.

Imperō vōbīs silentium.

In conclāvī scholārī sunt quoque lacūnar et pavīmentum.

Lacūnar est suprā capita vestra.

Magister vester sum.

Pavīmentum sub vestrīs pedibus est.

06.02.25: level 2; reading; a schoolmaster’s treachery; Livy’s account [3] language notes [2]; participles [1]

There’s no getting around it; original literature is crammed with participles! In English we very often need a clause or a phrase to convey an idea which Latin can convey in one word; that feature of Latin allows for more concise expression, often a “faster moving” narrative. Here are four excerpts all of which contain participles:

[i] virgasque eis, quibus proditorem agerent in urbem verberantes, dedit │ and he gave them rods by which they might drive the traitor into the city while beating him

[ii] arma habemus …  adversus armatos │ we use our weapons … against armed men

[iii] … qui nec laesi nec lacessiti a nobis ... │ …who, neither injured nor provoked by us, …

[iv] denudatum deinde eum … pueris tradidit │ he then handed him, stripped, to the boys

Let’s take them apart to see what’s happening …

armō, -āre, -āvi, armātus [1]: furnish with weapons

> armātus, -a, -um: having been furnished with weapons

laedō, -ere, laesī, laesus [3]: offend; hurt

> laesus, -a, -um: having been offended

lacessō, -ere, lacessīvī, lacessītus [3]: provoke

> lacessītus, -a, -um: having been provoked

dēnūdō, -āre, -āvī, dēnūdātus [1]: strip; make naked

> dēnūdātus, -a, -um: having been stripped

[i] present active participle: used to convey two actions happening at the same time

virgasque eis, quibus proditorem [1] agerent in urbem [2] verberantes, dedit │ and he gave them rods by which they might drive the traitor into the city while beating him

The other three are perfect passive participles, used to convey something that had already happened to someone

[ii] The participle being used as a noun:

arma habemus …  adversus armatos │ we use our weapons … against armed men / those who have been armed

[iii] The participle being used in a phrase describing the enemy

… qui nec laesi nec lacessiti ¦ a nobis ¦ ... │ …who, (having been) neither injured nor provoked ¦ by us, ¦ …

[iv] The participle being used as an adjective:

denudatum deinde eum … pueris tradidit │ he then handed him, stripped, to the boys = the man, who had been stripped, he handed over to the boys

05.02.25: level 2; crime and punishment [12]; reading [4]; international headlines

“I would advise you, as you tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance of this Parliament".

This is part of an anonymous letter sent to Lord Monteagle, a member of the House of Lords, who passed the letter to the King’s advisors resulting in the discovery of what is known in Britain as the Gunpowder Plot. And they almost got away with it: on November 4^th 1605 Guy Fawkes was found in the vaults of Parliament – together with 36 barrels of gunpowder. King James should have sacked his security team!

The failed attempt to blow up the Houses of Parliament on November 5^th 1605 made international headlines. Interestingly, in order to maximise the readership, the report is written not only in French and German, but also in Latin which does show the significance of the language even at this period in history since the Latin version would have ensured that all the places of learning throughout Europe would have been furnished with the details.

The impression I have of this report is that it was written quickly, which is understandable since it was a major event, and not all the conspirators are listed. Some of the word order is a little chaotic (the French version is much neater), there are spelling errors and omissions, inconsistencies in capitalisation, and confusion with certain words and phrases.

[1] CONCILIVM SEPTEM NOBILVM ANGLORVM CONIVRANTIVM IN NECEM IACOBI I │ The meeting of the seven English noblemen conspiring in the murder of James 1*

• concilium, -ī [2/n]: meeting
• coniūrō, -āre, -āvī [1]: conspire; coniūrāns, coniūrantis (participle): conspiring
• nex, necis [3/f]: murder

 *James VI of Scotland who became James I of both Scotland and England after the union of the crowns in 1603

[2] Vidēs Spectātor hūmānissimē hīc expressās effigiēs septem Anglōrum quī Rēgem suum cum (i) *paraecipuēs* [= praecipuōs] Statūs Anglicī Proceribus ad *Parlementum* [= Parlamentum] ut vocant convocātīs pulvere tormentāriō simul horrendō modō in ipsā domō *Parlemntī* [= Parlamentī] ēvertere voluērunt.

You see, most cultured ‘reader’ (i.e. person looking at the picture) = ‘dear reader’, reproduced here the images of the seven Englishmen who wanted to overthrow their (own) king together with the noblemen as they call (i) the leading men of the English State (who had been) summoned to Parliament at the same time in an horrific manner by means of gunpowder in the House of Parliament itself.

(i) ‘paraecipues’: the writer probably means praecipuōs i.e. the preeminent / distinguished (men) or he has principēs (leaders) in mind. The French translation says ‘les premiers’  i.e. the first (leading) men and ‘les principaus *offic(ie)rs*’ [the missing letters are added above]: the chief officers

• convocātus, -a, -um: summoned; convened < convocō, -āre, -āvī [1]: summon; convene; call together
• effigiēs, -ēī [5/f]: (here) image
• ēvertō, -ere, ēvertī [3]: destroy; (political) subvert; overthrow
• expressus, -a, -um: (here) reproduced < exprimō, -ere, expressi [3]: copy; imitate
• ipse, ipsa, ipsum: himself / herself / itself i.e. in the report it emphasises the enormity of the crime; in ipsā domō Parlamentī │ in the very House of Parliament i.e. right inside it, dear readers!
• procer, -is [3/m]: nobleman (mainly in the plural)
• status, -ūs [4/m]: (here) State
• pulvis, pulveris [3/n]: powder
• pulvis tormentārium: gunpowder; tormentārius, -a, -um is not attested in CL but used by this period and derived from tormentum, -ī [2/n] a Roman war machine for throwing missiles i.e. artillery; the powder is used as a weapon; similarly, globus tormentārius: cannonball

There is a contemporary reference to it by Diego Collado, a Spanish Christian missionary (1587 – 1638):

Ego pulverem tormentārium cōnficiō: cum ergō ita sit: haereticīs et pyrātīs Holandīs vēndidī huiusmodī pulverem; illīs etiam ministrāvī quaerendō vīctū alia, sclopōs, et glandēs seu globōs tormentāriōs, et tormenta et alia īnstrūmenta bellica. │ I make the gunpowder, and as it is, I have sold it to the Dutch heretics and pirates. For obtaining my livelihood, I also procured other stuff for them: guns and bullets or cannon balls and cannons and other instruments of war.

Note the uses of the ablative case:

[i] ablative of means / instruement i.e. what was going to be used

• pulvere tormentāriō │ by means of gunpowder

[ii] ablative of manner i.e. in what way was this going to be done, in this case not nicely …

• horrendō modō │ in an horrific manner

[3] Cuius Coniūrātiōnis nefandae Auctōrēs fuēre inprīmīs Robertus Catesby & Thomas Perci quī sibi deinde adiūnxēre aliōs, vidēlicet, Thomam & Robertum Winter, Guidonem Fawkens …

The perpetrators / instigators of this heinous conspiracy were firstly Robert Catesby and Thomas Percy who then added others to themselves [= involved others], namely Thomas and Robert Winter, Guido Fawkes …

• adiungō, -ere, adiūnxī [3]: add; join
• auctor, auctōris [3/m]: the ‘doer’, author, originator, person who started something
• coniūrātiō, conīurātiōnis [3/f]:conspiracy
• inprīmīs = imprīmīs: firstly; especially
• nefandus, -a, -um: heinous; abominable
• videlicet: namely

The most famous of the conspirators, and after whom the 5^th of November celebration in the UK is named, is Guido [from Italian = Guy] Fawkes which is translated as a 3^rd declension noun i.e. Guido, Guidonis

[4] Sed coniūrātiōne hāc Dīvīnā prōvidentiā & clēmentiā decem aut (i) [minus (?)] hōrīs ante futūra(m) Cessiōnem [= sessiōnem] Parlamentī [note: he gets the spelling right this time] Dētēcta & Coniūrātīs persecūtīs ex iīs Robertus Catesbī & Thomas Percī ictū sclopētī periēre et *eonum* [= eōrum] capita domuī Parlementī (ii) *inperpetuant* [= in perpetuam] reī memoriam imposita *caeterī* [= cēterī; nōn-standard spelling] cum multīs aliīs quī eandem in rem cōnspīrārant adhūc captīvī dētinentur, dignam facinore sententiam expectantēs

But this conspiracy through divine providence and mercy having been disclosed ten or (i) (less [?]) hours before the sitting of parliament (was about to happen) and the conspirators pursued of whom Robert Catesby and Thomas Percy perished from a gunshot (rifle shot) and their heads (were) placed on the house of parliament (ii) as a permanent reminder of the deed / matter / affair / event, the rest together with many others who had conspired in the same deed are still being held captive awaiting a sentence befitting  / worthy of the crime.

(i) This is very unclear in the document (and, if there is a translation, I couldn’t find one); it is possibly ‘minus’ and the French version says ‘environ dix heures devant l’assemblé(e)’ i.e. about ten hours before the gathering

(ii) *inperpetuant* … memoriam [= in perpetuam … memoriam]; I suspect that not only was this document written quickly, but also dictated i.e. he seems to be writing what he is hearing rather than what he knows himself; again, the French says en memoire de l’acte (in memory of the deed)

• dētectus, -a, -um: disclosed; uncovered; revealed; ‘disclosed’ is probably the best translation of this since the conspiracy wasn’t discovered through any detective work or security measures but by the anonymous letter to Monteagle
• dignus, -a, -um: worthy; the adjective is followed by a noun in the ablative case
• facinus, facinoris [3/n]: crime > sententiam, dignam facinore … │ a sentence worthy of / befitting the crime
• ictus, -ūs [4/m]: stab; thrust; (here) shot; note the use of the ablative case to indicate the means by which they died or the cause of death: ictū sclopētī periēre │ they died from (by means of / because of) a gunshot
• impositus, -a, -um: placed (upon) < impōno, -ere, imposuī [3] place, put, lay etc. upon, and what you place the thing on is in the dative case: capita domuī Parlamentī … imposita │ (their) heads (were) placed upon the house of Parliament
• persecūtus, -a, -um: pursued
• sclopētum, -ī [2/n]: rifle

Notes:

contracted forms

This is something that will come up later in the group when literature is discussed in more detail. These are examples of contracted forms; when we say ‘I’m’ instead ‘I am’ of that is a contracted form of two adjacent vowels [I + am > I’m, he + is > he’s etc.], the same is evident in French: il n’est pas [ne + est]. Compare older Latin: homost (Plautus) = homo est.

The most common example of contraction is the 3^rd person plural perfect where the ending -ērunt can be contracted to -ēre which is what you see in the first three examples from the text:

• adiunxēre = adiunxērunt: they joined
• fuēre = fuērunt: they were
• periēre = periērunt: they perished

Other contracted forms occur such as a further example from the text:

• qui eandem in rem cōnspīrārant = cōnspīrāverant │ who had conspired in the same matter

https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/101/contractions.pdf

PS: dignam facinore sententiam expectantēs │ awaiting a sentence befitting the crime

Fawkes and the conspirators who remained alive, were tried for high treason in Westminster Hall on 27 January 1606 and all were convicted and sentenced to death. The executions took place on 30 and 31 January (Fawkes was executed on 31) and included hanging, drawing and quartering. The heads and other portions of the conspirator's bodies were set up at different points around Westminster and London. (parliament.uk)

PPS: as part of British tradition, the Yeomen of the Guard still search the Houses of Parliament before the State Opening!

04.02.25: Level 2; the passive voice [31]: the perfect passive [12]; the fourth principal part / perfect passive participle: ways of learning [5]

More than one derivative can appear in English which was intially formed from a perfect passive participle and they all show the same spelling of the original Latin. Moreover, English quite happily adds Old English endings to Latin and French derivatives, but the spelling of the perfect passive participle has survived!

agō, agere, ēgī, āctus: act; do > act; acting; action; actor

discutiō, discutere, discussī, discussus [3-iō]: (Late Latin meaning) examine > discuss; discussing; discussion

faciō, facere, fēcī, factus [3-iō]: do; make > fact; faction; factor; factoring; factual

perficiō, perficere, perfēcī, perfectus [3-iō]: complete; finish > perfect; perfecting; perfection; perfectionist

The images show derivatives of the following verbs:

colligō, colligere, collēgī, collēctus [3]: gather

dīrigō, dīrigere, dirēxī, dīrēctus [3]: lay straight

dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductus [3]: lead

īnficiō , īnficere, īnfēcī, īnfēctus [3-iō]: spoil; taint

inicio, inicere, iniēcī, iniectus [3-iō]: throw in

intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus [3]: understand

legō, legere, lēgī, lectus [3]: read

prōtegō, prōtegere, prōtēxī, prōtēctus [3]: cover; defend

sēligō, sēligere, sēlēgē, selēctus [3]: pick out

03.02.25: Level 1; Julia, a Latin Reader (Reed) [5]

Complete the Latin text by using the translation and the vocabulary listed at the end.

clīvus, -ī [2/m]: slope; hill

iuvencus, -ī [2/m]: bullock

oppidānus, -ī [2/m]: resident of a town; usually plural i.e. oppidanī: townsfolk

vīnea, -ae [1/f]: vineyard

[1] The sky of Italy is blue. The Italians love the blue sky. The British also like the blue sky [= the blue sky is pleasing to the British], but the sky of Britain is not often blue.

___________ est Ītaliae caelum. Italī _______ caeruleum _______. Britannīs quoque caelum caeruleum _______ est, sed nōn ______ Britanniae caelum caeruleum est.

[2] The farmers of Italy praise the olives and vineyards, they plough the fields with white bullocks. The bullocks’ eyes are peaceful. The bullocks are gentle and beautiful. The farmers of Italy like the bullocks [= the bullocks are pleasing to the farmers…]

Ītaliae agricolae olīvās et vīneās _________, iuvencīs ______ agrōs _________. _________ sunt oculī iuvencōrum. Placidī et _________ sunt iuvencī. Ītaliae agricolīs ______ sunt iuvencī.

[3] The British farmers plough the fields not with bullocks but with horses. The large horses are strong and beautiful.

Britannicī agricolae ___ iuvencīs ___ equīs agrōs arant. _______ et pulchrī sunt equī ______.

[4] There are many hills in Italy. They build towns on small hills. The townsfolk live in towns on the hills. Vineyards and olives are in the field, towns on the hills.

In Ītaliā clīvī ______ sunt. Italī __ clīvīs _______ oppida _____________. Oppidānī oppida in clīvīs __________. In campō vīneae __ olīvae sunt, in clīvīs oppida.

[5] Roman roads are through the fields. Roman roads are long and straight. The townsfolk want / desire olives and grapes, the farmers money. Therefore, the townsfolk give money to the farmers, and the farmers carry the olives and grapes in wagons along the Roman roads to(wards) the towns.

___ campōs viae Rōmānae sunt. _______ et _______ sunt viae Rōmānae. Oppidānī olīvās et ūvās, agricolae pecūniam _____________. _______ oppidānī pecūniam agricolīs _____, et per viās Rōmānās agricolae olīvās et ūvās __ oppida in plaustrīs _________.

ad; aedificant; albīs; amant; arant; caelum; caeruleum; dant; dēsīderant; et; grātī; grātum; habitant; in; itaque; laudant; longae; magnī; multī; nōn; parvīs; per; placidī; portant; pulchrī; rēctae; saepe; sed; validī