line from the Codex Buranus:
(Old Latin) mānis, -e (good)
+ in- > inmānis, -e or immānis, -e: (here)
frightful; monstrous
mortālis, -e: mortal │immortālis,
-e: immortal
The in- prefix with variant
spellings e.g. im- ill- gives the opposite meaning.
When the Romans got upset,
they tended to voice their frustration at the gods!
Lines from the Codex Buranus:
O Fortuna │Oh Fortune
velut luna │Like the moon
statu variabilis…
│ changeable in state
vita detestabilis │detestable life
…rota tu volubilis │
turning wheel (changeable in terms of fate)
… semper dissolubilis │
always ‘dissoluble’ (always fading to nothing)
[i] All 3rd declension
adjectives of 2 terminations end in -is / -e and a
significant proportion of them end in the suffix: vowel [mainly -ā- or -i-]
+ bilis [m/f] / -bile [n] which is formed usually
from verbs and denotes ‘worthy of’; the Latin suffix is reflected in English
derivatives. [image #1]
[ii] The English suffix –(i /a)ble was added to words which were not of Latin origin, but the meaning of the Latin suffix from which –(i/a)ble was derived was retained. [image #2]
This word came up in earlier posts. It is a very important adjective in this 2 termination category.
singular: omnis (masculine;
femine); omne (neuter) means ‘every’; ‘the entirety’
plural: omnēs (masculine;
feminine); omnia (neuter): in the plural means ‘all’
It very often occurs on its
own in the plural referring to people or things
omnēs: everyone
omnia: all things
Plural
[1] Nominative: -ēs
[m/f], -ia [n]
[i]: masculine and feminine
have the same ending: -ēs
[ii] neuter: -ia
[2] Genitive: -ium
all genders have the same
ending: -ium
[3] Dative: -ibus
all genders have the same
ending: -ibus
[4] Accusative -ēs
[m/f]; -ia [n]
[i] masculine and feminine
have the same ending: -ēs i.e. the same as the nominative plural
Note again! 3rd declension
adjectives are not only used with 3rd declension nouns; they just happen to
share the same endings:
Scrībae brevēs [3rd
declension adjective in the accusative] epistulās [2d declension
noun in the accusative] scrībunt.
[ii] neuter: -ia i.e. the
same as the nominative plural
Bear this word in mind!
[5] Ablative: -ibus
all genders have the same
ending: -ibus
Singular
[1] Nominative: -is [m/f],
-e [n]
[i] masculine and feminine
have the same ending: -is
Dominus ¦ crūdēlis ¦
servum castīgat. │ The cruel master punishes the slave.
[ii] neuter: -e
Hoc opus ¦ difficile ¦
est. │ This work is difficult.
[2] Genitive: -is
all genders have the same
ending: -is i.e. the same as the nominative masculine and feminine above but applies
to all genders in the genitive singular
Dolor mātris ¦ fortis ¦
erat magnus. │ The sorrow ¦ of the brave mother ¦ was great.
[3] Dative: -ī
all genders have the same
ending: -ī
Rēx ¦ fortī ¦
mīlitī praemium dat. │ The king gives a reward ¦ to the brave soldier.
[4] Accusative: -em [m/f];
-e [n]
[i] masculine and feminine
have the same ending: -em
[ii] neuter is the same as
the nominative singular: -e
[5] Ablative: -ī
all genders have the same
ending: -ī
Very important note! The grammatical terminology
can be misleading.
3rd declension adjectives
are not only used with 3rd declension nouns; they just happen to share the same
endings, for example:
Dominus [2nd
declension noun] crūdelis [3rd declension adjective] servōs
cāstigat. │ The cruel master punishes the slaves.
Servī dominum [2nd
declension noun in the accusative] crūdelem [3rd declension
adjective in the accusative] timent. │ The slaves fear the cruel master.
I’m going to start with the 3rd declension adjectives known as 2 termination because the vast majority belong to this group i.e. in the nominative singular [i] masculine and feminine have the same ending and [ii] the neuter has a different ending.
Image #1: there are two NOUNS shown:
[A] is feminine and [B] is neuter; I’ll call them A and B because in [A]: all
3rd declension masculine and feminine adjectives decline the
same way as this noun: masculine and feminine 2 termination adjectives have no
difference between them
[B] is mare (sea);
that’s a neuter noun and its endings are a little different
from the masculine and feminine (marked in yellow).
Keep those endings in mind
and then look at:
Image #2: those are the ADJECTIVE
endings and you’ll see that the endings are the same as the nouns. The only
difference to note is that, while some NOUNS can have alternative ablative
singulars (-e or -ī), the ADJECTIVE only ends in -ī.
This is the one that matches with the 3rd declension adjectives
Before I post the next part on 3rd declension adjectives, I wanted to share a story, and it's a story and an image that I shared with students for many years.
I had just completed my
first year of Russian at university. The Professor, Peter Henry, approached me
and explained that there was a one month scholarship at the Pedagogical
Institute of Minsk in, at that time, the Belorussian Republic of the USSR. This
scholarship was offered to second year students, but the candidate couldn't go,
and so he offered it to me. I was delighted.
You see that arrow in the
image? Two days after I started the course, I sat right there with my head in
my hands. One of the lecturers, Yurij Stulov, saw me, sat down beside me and
asked me what was wrong. I explained: 'Ya nichevo ne znayu' (I know nothing),
'Vsyo eto slishkom trudno' (All of this is too difficult), 'Ya khochu
vernut'sya v Angliyu' (I want to go back to England). More than that, I wanted
to give up Russian.
And I felt that way - I felt inferior -
because everybody else in the group was in their final year at Oxford and I had
only completed my first year. The questions were too difficult, the concepts
were too difficult, they could all answer the questions and I couldn't. Yurij
clapped me on the shoulder, wandered off and spoke to my lecturer.
The next day, the lecturer
gave me easier material to deal with, when the questions were too difficult he
didn't ask me, and when he thought I could answer them, he asked me. I changed
completely, I felt confident...and not only did I go back to Minsk the
following year, I had a further scholarship at Leningrad, completed my Masters
and taught the language for twenty years. That one moment, thanks to Yurij
Stulov, not only changed me, but I never forgot it and used that incident to
emphasise to students that none of us always find things easy.
So, if you find Latin
difficult at times, if somebody writes something that is still over your head,
don't be disheartened. Go back through the posts, check the alternative site,
use the file downloads, use the youtube videos, and ask questions. If, for example,
somebody writes here or elsewhere "Ah, that's a third person singular
imperfect passive subjunctive in a subordinate clause of purpose" then
remember the term I made up: Minsk syndrome. Don't bother about it; if you're
not at that stage yet, then leave it. Focus on your own level. A wall starts
from its foundations, not half way through.
And the reason I write this
is because, in the next post, I am about to state that 3rd declension
adjectives are like 3rd declension nouns, and if you're asking "What's a
3rd declension noun?" then the Minsk syndrome has kicked in.
But don't sit on a wall with your head in your hands. I'm going to post some
references that will summarise the 3rd declension nouns - because they are a
major element in Latin - and I am in the process of transferring all of the
information on the 3rd declension nouns onto the alternative site.
To some extent, he's been misleading them since 1919! Felix doesn't mean 'cat', it's a third declension adjective: fēlīx, fēlīcis meaning 'happy'. 'Cat' is fēlēs, fēlis [3/f]
Third declension adjectives are the last of the adjective declensions. They all take the same endings but there is a difference in the nominative singular. Here are three third declension adjectives:
[1] audāx: bold, daring;
only one form for masculine, feminine and neuter
[2] fortis [masculine and
feminine], forte [neuter]: brave, strong; two forms (i) for
masculine and feminine (ii) for neuter
[3] celer [masculine],
celeris [feminine], celere [neuter]: fast; three forms, a different
ending for all three genders
Therefore, …
[1] audāx is
an adjective of one termination
[2] fortis, forte is
an adjective of two terminations
[3] celer, celeris,
celere is an adjective of three terminations
Those are the expressions
used in grammar.
(I used to note these as,
for example: fortis, -e [3/2t] i.e. it’s a third
declension adjective with two terminations. That’s not a
standard way of doing it, but that’s what I used.)
Below are some examples of
third declension adjectives.
One termination
Adjectives of one
termination can, like 3rd declension nouns, have a variety of forms in the
nominative singular.
audāx: bold; daring; reckless
caelebs: unmarried; single.
dīves: wealthy
fēlīx: happy
prūdēns: wise
vetus: old
Two terminations
Adjectives of two
terminations, to which by far the largest group of 3rd
declension adjectives belong, have a nominative singular in -is for masculine
and feminine, and -e for neuter.
brevis, -e: short; brief
crūdēlis, -e: cruel
difficilis, -e: difficult
facilis, -e: easy
fidēlis, -e: faithful; loyal
fortis, -e: brave; strong
gravis, -e: grave; heavy
levis, -e: light (not heavy)
nōbilis, -e: noble
pinguis, -e: fat; plump
trīstis, -e: sad
Three terminations
There are very few 3rd
declension adjectives of three terminations; all of them end in -er in
the masculine, -is in the feminine and -ein the neuter; note
that, with the exception of celer, the -er ending, like
some 2nd declension masculine nouns, loses the -e- when an ending is added.
celer, celeris, celere:
fast; swift
Note the loss of the /e/ in
the others:
acer, acris, acre:
sharp; bitter; keen; eager; cruel
alacer, alacris, alacre:
lively; brisk; cheerful; eager
celeber, celebris, celebre:
famous
paluster, palustris,
palustre: swampy; marshy
volucer, volucris, volucre:
winged; able to fly
Most of the vocabulary needed to access this has been covered in previous posts related to the topic of weather. I’ve added some vocabulary below.
aliquantum: somewhat;
slightly
aura, -ae 1/f: air or breeze
depending on context; synonyms for aura:
āēr, -is [3 m/f]: air
spīritus, -ūs [4/m]: air;
light breeze
ventus, -ī [2/m]: wind
diēs can occur as both a
masculine and feminine noun, hence diēs obscura et pluviosa
dorat = durat from duro,
durare [1]: last; continue
impetuosus, -a, -um: violent
inamoenus, -a, -um:
disagreeable
minatur: (it’s) threatening
i.e. there is a threat of …
minantur: (they) are
threatening i.e. there are threats of …
subsequus, -a, -um (Late
Latin): following
subsequā nocte: on the
following night
temperatus, -a, -um:
moderate
Take a look at the text and
find the words for:
[1] find the verbs:
(it’s) getting cold
(it’s) getting warm
(it’s) getting hot
it is hot (and sultry)
it’s fine weather
it’s covered with clouds (or fog)
[2] find the adjectives:
cold
chilly
colder [with this ending, Latin and English almost match, so take a good look]
frosty
cloudy
rainy
stormy
windy
[3] find the nouns:
fine weather
clouds
hail
rain showers
rain
storm
Here are some questions on the text:
There are several references to wind, but on what date is a light (moderate) wind mentioned?
1. On what date are rainshowers, stormy weather and wind mentioned together?
2. Which date specifically mentions night and day?
3. On which date is there a lot of (a copious amount of) rain?
4. Which dates refer to cold nights?
5. Which dates refers to a ‘dark’ day?
6. Which two dates refer to thunder?
7. On which two dates does the weather continue to be the same as the day before? Think also of the meaning of endure in the sense of lasting.
8. How does the weather change on the 11th?
9. Is it very cloudy on the 12th?
10. Are there light winds on the 14th?
11. How does the air change on the 23rd?
12. What is there a danger (periculum) of on the 29th?
21.04.24: the weather in 1750 [2]
The document in the previous
post is a series of simple weather descriptions for one month. The author wrote
it in Latin not as some pointless “exercise” to show how well he knew the
language. He wrote it in Latin as an active means of communication which would
be universally understood by his academic peers throughout Europe. You won’t
find a Classical Latin text with such an intensity of weather expressions one
after the other – or you will have to wade through the writings of Lucretius -
but you will in this text.
Texts from this period are
interesting because they show a “rebirth” of interest in, among others, science
and geography. Sometimes these texts have no translation (I cannot recall
whether this one did) and sometimes they appear in no other format except the
original.
So, this is an original
Latin text in its original format. I have copied it exactly the way it was
written and I’ll make a few comments about certain aspects of the format.
Earlier writing which used calligraphy can be quite dense but this 18th century
piece is quite accessible.
A couple of notes:
[1] (May 8th) serenitas.
FB cannot reproduce the letter, but the one that looks like an /f/ with a small
stroke to the left is a form of /s/.
[2] Some texts use /j/
instead of /i/: MAJUS = MAIUS; most books nowadays (and these posts) use /i/.
[image #1]
[3] diacritics:
these are marks placed above or below letters (sometimes beside letters) to
indicate, for example, how a letter is pronounced; if you have studied French
then you will already be familiar with ‘accents’ e.g. é, ç, or, if you know
German then you will recognise the umlaut accent ü. Latin does not use
diacritics; the macron that you see in the posts and in textbooks is only used
to indicate long vowels [ā, ē, ī, ō, ū] but diacritical marks were used from
the Middle Ages by the scribes copying Latin manuscripts and are also evident
in this text.
nubilũ Letter
/u/ with tilde [ ͂ ], the same diacritic used in Spanish (but for a different
reason), represents a following /m/ or /n/
nubilum: cloud; mist
[4] Endings are sometimes
missing from the texts; this one is marked by a full stop to indicate that:
impetuos. ventos
= impetuosos ventos
[5]
(i) procellosumq:
this is an abbreviation of the enclitic que (and)
(ii) &, an ampersand,
the sign to mark ‘and’
We are only focussing on the
weather expressions, but there are some other points of interest which use
vocabulary that has already been discussed in previous posts [image #2]
Curs: abbreviation for cursus,
-ūs [4/m] here referring to the ‘courses’ of the Moon i.e. the
revolutions of the Moon around the Earth.
Or: abbreviation for ortus,
-ūs [4/m] referring to the hour (hōra) and minute (minūta)
the sun rises; note the appearance of the word for minute; minutes
were not used in the expression of clock time in Ancient Rome. This is an
example of a word that did exist in Classical Latin which has been adapted.
Oc: abbreviation for occasus,
-ūs [4/m] referring to the hour (h) and minute (m) the
sun sets.
Although the long-term aim of the group is, in part, to read Classical Latin, it isn’t the case that we can only learn Latin from the Romans. Latin is not their exclusive property, any more than English is the exclusive property of the English, even though, sometimes, we like to think so.
While there are terms to
divide periods of Latin e.g. Silver Age of Latin literature, Mediaeval Latin,
Vulgar Latin, Ecclesiastical, New Latin, any source can be used if it is
grammatically correct and helps give practice in vocabulary,
grammar or sentence structure. This is a group for learning Latin, not (yet)
reading Pliny.
Many quotations from the
Roman authors have been used to illustrate points, but those quotations are
often contained within much larger and complex literary works. Learning to read
Latin is a gradual process which is why many texts have been included from
schoolbooks which, I feel, were written by thoughtful writers who were also
teachers i.e. they constructed the texts in such a way as to emphasise
particular points to their pupils.
We’re going to look at a
document written in 1750, and it’s “real” Latin because the language didn’t
stop when the Ancient Romans did; it continued, evolved and acquired new
vocabulary to meet contemporary needs.
So, the document is posted
below. Over the next couple of posts we’ll take it apart.
Since the previous posts have discussed how inchoative verbs express how something is becoming something else, it’s appropriate here to talk about an important verb in Latin:
fiō, fieri: become; be
made
Now, this verb is part of a
far wider discussion with regard to Latin verbs, but, for the moment, it’s so
common that you should be able to recognise it:
fīō: I become
fīs: you (sg.) become
fit: he / she / it becomes
fīmus: we become
fītis: you (pl.) become
fīunt: they become
Magister īrātus fit:
the teacher gets / becomes / is made angry.
Antōnius Octāviānusque
inimīcī fīunt: Anthony and Octavian become enemies.
Bacche, bene venies gratus
et optatus, ¦ Bacchus, you will come to us welcome here and wanted
per quem noster animus fit letificatus*.
¦ through whom our spirit is made joyful
*There is a shift in
Mediaeval Latin spelling to reflect pronunciation change: /ae/ in Classical
Latin becomes /e/ in Mediaeval; Classical Latin is laetificatus
Where it occurs a lot is in
the past: factus, -a, -um est i.e. he / she / it became or was made:
Cn. Octāviō, quī prīmus ex
illā familiā cōnsul factus est (Cicero) ¦ (We have heard that)
Gnaeus Octavius—the first of that family who was elected consul…
The image from the Middle
Ages, judging by the lady’s reaction, doesn’t suggest that everybody was keen
on drinking!
A nice use of the inchoative verbs is with colour:
albus, -a, -um: white >
albēscō, albēscere [3]: become white; turn pale
non aequore verso tam creber
fractis albescit fluctus in undis (Silius) ¦ Thick and fast
they come, like the billows on a stormy sea that whiten amid
the breaking waves
So, we can combine this with
a quick recap on some of the colour adjectives in Latin:
niger, nigra, -um: black
> nigrēscit: it turns / it’s becoming black
ruber, rubra, -um: red >
rubēscit: it turns red; can also refer to blushing
flāvus, -a, -um: yellow >
flāvēscit: it turns yellow
viridis, -e [3rd declension
adjectīve; coming soon]: green > viridēscit: it turns green
All the inchoative verbs are
3rd conjugation; most of them are unlikely to be found in any other person
except the 3rd singular or plural since they primarily describe changes
happening to inanimate objects. A nice one, though, is canēscō, canēscere [3]:
become white; turn grey; it’s from the adjective cānus, -a, -um,
‘grey’ with reference to hair. You can use it in this way: canēscō: I’m growing
old, I’m growing grey with age.
Have a look at the images
posted and match them with these simple phrases:
folium, -ī [2/n]: leaf
frōns, frondis [3/f]:
foliage; leafy branch
1. Abōrēs frondēscunt.
2. Caelum nigrēscit.
3. Caelum rubēscit.
4. Capillus albēscit.
5. Folia autumnō rubēscunt.
6. Herba flāvēscit.
You possibly never knew that, when you eat a croissant, you’re eating an inchoative verb, but before I talk about that, here are the opening lines of O Fortuna (Codex Buranus circa 12th century) which is also the first piece of Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana
O Fortuna ¦ Oh Fortune
Velut luna ¦ Just like the
moon
Statu variabilis ¦
variable in state [(you are) changeable]
Semper crescis ¦
You’re always growing [waxing]
Aut decrescis; ¦
Or you’re decreasing [waning]
Vita detestabilis ¦ hateful
life
OK, now you have what you
need to look at inchoative verbs!
Croissant “increasing” with, in terms of the food item,
reference to a crescent moon, a moon that is increasing <
French croître: grow; increase. The verb, through Old French, is
derived from Latin: crescēns (growing) which, in turn, is from
the verb you see in the O Fortuna extract: crēscō,
crēscere [3]: rise; increase; come to be:
If you are interested in
music, you may know the Italian term crescendo meaning that
what you’re playing starts getting louder and the musical
symbol for that (<) illustrates it.
If something is growing or
decreasing, it is changing state.
Latin has a number of verbs
which convey this idea and are known as inchoative.
Inchoative verbs (from
Latin incohō ‘begin’), also known as inceptive verbs (Latin:
incipiō ‘begin’) describe a change of state i.e. something becomes
something else, for example it changes in size, shape, colour, appearance
etc; in English this idea is very often expressed by the verbs ‘become’,
‘grow’, ‘turn’ and, commonly in speech ‘get’ together with an adjective:
The same idea can also be
expressed by English verbs such as ‘darkEN’, ‘lightEN’ where the suffix -en can
have the same inchoative idea.
These verbs also mark the
beginning of an action:
What to look out for is -sc-
crēscō, crēscere [3]:
increase
It’s still hiding in the
croissant < crēscēns …
and it’s even more obvious
in crescendo
calet: it’s warm / hot >
calēSCit: it’s turning warm / hot
frīget: it’s cold >
frīgēSCit: it’s getting cold
liquet: it is liquid >
liquēSCit: it melts
lūcet: it shines; it’s
dawning > lūcēSCit: the day is breaking
tenebrae [f. pl]: darkness
> tenebrēSCit: it grows dark
tepet: it’s warm >
tepēSCit: it’s growing warm
vespera, -ae [1/f]: evening > vesperāSCit: it’s becoming evening
The Romans never made it to Jamaica, but this is a short description of weather conditions there written by a visitor in 1769.
In Insula Jamaica, in qua
maximus est aestus quālibet nocte fulgurat mensibus Iulio, Augusto et
Septembre. Fulgurat saepe cum tonitru.
1. What does the writer say
about the heat?
2. What happens at night?
3. When does this happen?
4. What also often happens?
20.04.24: an historical weather report!
This is from the website
nle.org. It’s in the form of a TV weather forecast but not your normal weather
forecast since the presenter throws in a few historical references! Check the
vocabulary and have a go at answering the questions.
[1] In which countries will
it be:
(i) hot and sultry?
(ii) windy?
[2] What’s the outlook like
for tomorrow?
[3] Where will it be particularly (praesertim)
windy?
[4] Why does the presenter
refer to Alexander the Great and Ptolemy?
[5] The presenter makes
reference to a naval battle at Actium. Which two people were defeated?
[6] Who rules Egypt?
[7] Which two words describe
the climate of the land of the Pyramids?
[8] The Nile flows into the
Mediterranean. But what did the Romans call the Mediterranean?
[9] What famous structures
are located at Alexandria?
[10] Where is the outlook
bad?
Grātiās tibi agō, Favōnī.
Tōtam per Ītaliam aestuōsa est hodiē, ut semper hīs temporibus
annī. Auspicia autem sunt bona ad tempestātem
crāstinam. Ventōsum est autem in Graeciā, praesertim hīc
in Macedoniā. Alexander Magnus et prīmus Ptolemaeus in Macedoniā nātī sunt. Et
ventōsum est apud Actium, ubi Caesar Octāviānus nāvālī proeliō superāvit
Cleopatram Antōniumque. In Aegyptō, rēgnō Cleopatrae terrāque pȳramidum āridum est.
Ecce Nīlus, fluēns in Mare Nostrum! Ecce Alexandrīa, ubi est bibliothēca
clārissima et Pharōs nōtissimus. Auspicia mala sunt Aegyptō ad tempestātem
futūram.
aridus, -a, -um: dry;
parched; arid
auspicium, -ī [2/n]: (here)
sign; indication (outlook), but can also mean ‘divination’
The word is derived
from auspex, auspicis [3/m] referring to an ‘augur’, somebody
who foretells events by observing, for example, the behaviour of birds,
animals, or unusual phenomena. The theoretical derivation of the Latin is *avi
+ spex a person who examines the flight of birds. In Ancient Rome, the augur
would interpret omens at official events.
Similar to the auspex was
the haruspex, haruspicis [3/m], someone who examined the
intestines of animals in divination; the noun is often translated as soothsayer.
[image]
tempestās crāstina:
tomorrow’s weather
tempestās futūra: future
weather
tempus annī: time of the
year
