14.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [37] dependent uses; tense sequences [ii] practice

These two exercises are deliberately intended for you to focus on subtlety. The sequence of tenses discussed in the previous post do not only apply to clauses of purpose. However, here we will only use this clause type.

[1] Translate the following sentences:

[i] Domum iter fac ut captīvōs dēfendās.

[ii] Domum iter faciēbat ut captīvōs dēfenderet.

[iii] Mox domum iter fēcerit ut captīvōs dēfendat.

[iv] Postērō diē domum iter fēcerat ut captīvōs dēfenderet.

[v] Rōmam adīmus ut aurum celātum inveniāmus.

[vi] 2 subjunctives in the same sentence (hortatory and purpose)

Rōmam (1) adeāmus (2) ut aurum celātum inveniāmus.

[vii] Ad scholam currō ut discipulum cōnfīrmem.

[viii] Ad scholam cucurrī ut discipulum cōnfirmerem.

[ix] Ad Galliam fugite ut hostēs saevōs ēvādere possītis.

[x] Ad Galliam fugērunt ut hostēs saevōs ēvādere possent.

[xi] Pompeiās redībāmus ut vīllam emerēmus.

[xii] Pompeiās redīte ut vīllam emātis.

[xiii] Dominus servum in vincula iēcit nē fugeret.

[xiv] Dominus servum in vincula iaciet nē fugiat.

[xv] Cīvēs saxa iēcerant nē hostēs urbem caperent.

Again, a sentence with (1) a hortatory subjunctive, and (2) subjunctive of purpose

[xvi] Saxa (1) iaciāmus (2) nē hostēs urbem capiant.

[2]

Match the Latin sentences with the English translations listed below.

[i] Puer ad macellum mittitur ut pānem emat.

[ii] Puer ad macellum saepe mittēbātur ut pānem emeret.

Careful with the next two: remember that the Latin perfect can translate in two different ways in English.

[iii] Puer ad macellum missus est ut pānem emeret.

[iv] Puer ad macellum missus est ut pānem emat.

[v] Puer ad macellum missus erat ut pānem emeret.

[vi] Puer ad macellum missus erit ut pānem emat.

[vii] Mitte puerum ad macellum ut pānem emat.

Send the boy to the market so that he may buy bread.

The boy had been sent to the market to buy bread.

The boy has been sent to the market to buy bread.

The boy is being sent to the market to buy bread / … so that (in order that) he may buy bread

The boy was often sent to the market to buy bread. / …so  that (in order that) he would / buy bread

The boy was sent to the market to buy bread.

The boy will have been sent to the market to buy bread.

____________________

[1]

[i] Make a journey home so that you may defend the prisoners.

[ii] He was making a journey home in order that he might defend / (in order) to defend the captives.

[iii] Soon he will have made a journey home in order that he may defend / (in order) to defend the captives.

[iv] The next day he had made the journey home in order that he might defend the captives.

[v] We go to Rome in order that we may find the hidden gold.

[vi] (1) Let’s go (Latin: hortatory subjunctive) to Rome ¦ (2) in order that we may find / (in order) to find the hidden gold.

[vii] I’m running to the school in order that I may support / (in order) to support the student.

[viii] I ran to the school in order that I might support / (in order) to support the student.

[ix] Flee to Gaul in order that you may be able to escape the savage enemies.

[x] They fled to Gaul in order that they might be able to escape the savage enemies.

[xi] We were returning to Pompeii in order that we might buy a villa.

[xii] Return to Pompeii so that you may buy the villa.

[xiii] The master put the slave into chains so that he would not flee.

[xiv] The master will throw the slave into chains so that he may not escape.

[xv] The citizens had thrown stones so that the enemies would not capture the city.

[xvi] (1) Let’s throw (Latin: hortatory subjunctive) stones ¦ (2) so that the enemies do not capture the city.

[2]

[i] The boy is being sent to the market to buy bread / … so that (in order that) he may buy bread

[ii] The boy was often sent to the market to buy bread. / …so  that (in order that) he would buy bread

[iii] The boy was sent to the market to buy bread.

[iv] The boy has been sent to the market to buy bread.

[v] The boy had been sent to the market to buy bread.

[vi] The boy will have been sent to the market to buy bread.

[vii] Send the boy to the market so that he may buy bread.

14.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [36] dependent uses; tense sequences [i]

The term tense sequence can also be applied to English although usage is different. It means that the tense of the verb in the main clause can affect the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause. Although not expressing a subjunctive, we can see this in English indirect speech:

I tell him every day that I need to leave at 5pm.

I told him this morning that I would need to leave at 5pm.

I had told him yesterday that I needed to leave at 5pm.

There are other variations, but the point is that the verb in the main clause (tell / told / had told) affects the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause.

This is an important feature when dealing with the Latin subjunctive because the tense of the main verb will determine the subjunctive tense in the subordinate clause. Possibly without realising it, you have already seen this in operation in the posts on purpose clauses.

[1] and [2] below are referred to in grammar as:

[1] PRIMARY sequence

[2] SECONDARY or HISTORICAL sequence

The verbs in the main clause of [1] are described as primary.

The verbs in the main clause of [2] are described as secondary or historical.

[1] Primary sequence

Ad urbem eō [present indicative] ut pānem emam [present subjunctive].

• I’m going to the city to buy bread / in order that I may buy bread.

Ad Caesarem ībimus [future indicative] ut pācem rogēmus [present subjunctive].

• We shall go to Caesar to ask for peace / in order that we may ask for peace.

Manē [imperative] in urbe ut tūtus sīs [present subjunctive].

• Stay in the city to be safe / so that you may be safe.

[1] The primary tenses are:

[i] Present

• Ad Āsiam redeō ut hostēs vincam│ I’m returning to Asia to defeat / so that I may defeat the enemy.
• Scrībit, ut nōs moneat │ He writes to warn us.
• Magister discipulum hortātur ut crās reveniat │ The teacher encourages the pupil to return / so that he may return tomorrow.
• Labōrāmus ut dīvitēs fīāmus │ We work in order to become rich.
• Bellum gerimus ¦ nē urbem capiātis │ We are waging war so that you do not capture the city.

[ii] Future

• Clamābō ut cēterī audiant │ I shall shout so that the others may hear.
• Scrībet, ut nōs moneat │ He will write to warn us.
• Ducentōs  mittēmus ut hostium iter impediāmus │ We will send 200 (men) so that we may hinder the enemy’s march.
• Bellum gerēmus nē urbem capiātis. │ We shall wage war so that you do not capture the city.

[iii] Imperative (although not a tense, the imperative also creates a primary sequence)

• Scrībe, ut nōs moneās │ Write to warn us [ = in order that / so that you may warn us]

[iv] and [v] are far less common but still form part of this primary sequence:

[iv] Perfect [ = present perfect i.e. ‘have / has done’ something]

• Hoc fēcit ut glōriam habeat │ He has done this to have glory / so that he may have glory.
• Vēnērunt ut arma nōs rogent │ They have come to ask us for weapons.
• Domum īvimus ut amīcōs videāmus │ We have gone home to see (our) friends.
• Equum ēmī nē fessus sim │ I have bought a horse so that I won’t be tired.

[v] Future perfect

• Mox epistulam scripserō ut imperātōrem dē perīculō moneam │ I will soon have written the letter to warn / so that I may warn the commander about the danger.

[2] Secondary sequence

Ad urbem īvī [perfect indicative] ut pānem emerem [imperfect subjunctive].

• I went to the city to buy bread / in order that I might buy bread.

Hoc fēcimus [perfect indicative] nē copiās Rōmānās vincerēs [imperfect subjunctive].

• We did this so that you would not conquer the Roman troops.

Rōmānī bellum gerēbant [imperfect indicative] nē hostēs patriam invāderent [imperfect subjunctive].

• The Romans were waging war so that the enemy would not invade the homeland.

Ad Aegyptum vēnerat [pluperfect indicative] ut captīvōs līberāret [imperfect subjunctive].

• He had come to Egypt in order to free / so that he would free the slaves.

[2] The secondary / historic tenses are:

[i] perfect [= did something]

Scrīpsit, ut nōs monēret │ He wrote (in order) to warn us.

Note: the term ‘perfect’ appears in [1] and [2] because the perfect tense in Latin has a double function which, in English, has two separate forms;  it is the tense which overlaps i.e. in [1] it is the equivalent of the English present perfect [have/ has done something], whereas in [2] – and very commonly – it is the equivalent of the English simple past [did something] i.e. the entire event is over; there is no sense of it being ongoing. Depending upon context:

[1] Hoc fēcit ut cōnsul fīat │ He has done this so that he may become consul.

[2] Hoc fēcit ut cōnsul fieret │ He did this so that he would / might become consul.

[ii] imperfect

Vēnātor per silvam ambulābat ut bēstiās quaereret. │ The hunter was walking through the forest to search for / so that he might search for wild animals.

[iii] pluperfect

Scrīpserat, ut nōs monēret │ He had written to warn us / in order that he might warn us.

13.05.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [5]: the Emigration of the Helvetii (ii)

Language focus: passive

Hīs rēbus Helvētiī adductī sunt et auctōritāte Orgetorīgīs movēbantur; cōnstituērunt igitur omnēs equitēs et peditēs colligere, magnam cōpiam frūmentī comparāre, pācem et amīcitiam cum proximīs cīvitātibus cōnfirmāre. Inde ad eās cīvitātēs Orgetorīx lēgātus est missus. In eō itinere persuādet Casticō, cuius pater ā senātū populī Rōmānī amīcus appellātus erat; atque Dumnorigī, frātrī Divitiacī, quī eō tempore tenēbat principātum in cīvitāte, persuādet.

____________________

The Helvetii were prompted by these events and were influenced by the authority of Orgetorix; they therefore decided to gather all the cavalry and infantry, to collect a large supply of grain, and to secure peace and friendship with the neighbouring states. From there Orgetorix was sent as an envoy to those states. On that journey he persuades Casticus, whose father had been called a friend by the senate of the Roman people, and also Dumnorix, the brother of Divitiacus, who at that time held power in the state.

12.05.26: topic; theatre [2] parts of a theatre

“Terminology regarding parts of a theatre has changed over time.”

Image #1: detailed diagram of Shakespeare’s Globe theatre

(i)  The orchēstra to which Comenius refers are the middle and upper galleries.

(ii) Note [O] which shows the location of musicians above the stage rather than, as is more common now, in front and below the stage. Musicians’ / mintrels’ ‘galleries’ still exist in, for example, manor houses and located above the room.

(iii) [B] is the “yard”, the cavea to which Comenius refers; this was the area around the stage where the ‘groundlings’ stood i.e. the cheapest part of the theatre.

(iv) [H] scaena: stage

(v) [N] a small curtained area (sīpārium) at the rear of the stage

(vi) [T] is the hut containing the “machine” used to lower gods onto the stage, from which the term deus ex machinā is derived i.e. the plot device whereby a seemingly hopeless crisis is suddenly resolved by, for example, the unexpected itnervention of a god or a convenient (although unlikely) event.

Images #2 - #7: The Roman Theatre and Stadium

[i] The term amphitheātrum is from Anc. Gk. ἀμφιθέᾱτρον [amphithéātron] < ἀμφί [amphí: on both sides) + θέᾱτρον [théātron: theatre]

Traditional theatre design reflects the Classical origins i.e. a central performing area with upper seating surrounding the stage most frequently as an eliptical / horseshoe shape. A stadium or a “theatre in the round” concept provides seating around the performing area.

[ii] Comenius’ use of the following terms is not the same as the way the Romans described a theatre.

The orchēstra is the flat semi-circular area [A] in front of [B] the cavea, the tiered seating, shown in the image of the theatre at Bosra. The modern equivalents are [A] the stalls, and [B] the (grand) circle or upper circles (depending on what ticket price you can afford).

[iii] A good example of the way in which words have changed their usage over time:

pulpitum, -ī [2/n]: the physical stage of the theatre > Engl. deriv. pulpit (in a church)

scēna / scaena, -ae [1/f]: the physical stage or the scene being presented > Engl. deriv. scene i.e. a part of a play or the overall visual impression, but not referring to the actors’ performing area

• The English noun stage is from Old French estage (as in French étage to refer to the floor / storey of a building) < La: stō, -āre [1]: stand

[iv] proscēnium / proscaenium, -ī [2/n]: a low wall supporting the front edge of the raised stage (pulpitum), often ornately decorated with niches. In a modern theatre, the proscenium refers to the stage area between the main curtain and the orchestra pit, the proscenium arch being the frame that divides the stage from the auditorium.

The proscēnium may also refer to the stage area in front of the scenery, but our understanding of ‘scenery’ is associated with stage backdrops and items that can be changed or moved. The image from Bosra shows that the ‘backdrop’ was an elaborately decorated permanent background: scaenae frōns.

[v] vomitōrium, -ī [2/n]: contrary to popular belief, this was not a place where you went to vomit! Derived from vomō, -ere [3]: spew forth, it was a passage way below or behind tiered seats to allow actors to enter or leave the stage, and to provide rapid access or exit for large crowds.

[vi] From: A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (Harry Thurston Peck)

(i) “The interior of the amphitheatre was divided into three parts —the [1] arēna, [2] podium, and [3] gradūs. The clear open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was called the arena, because it was covered with sand or sawdust, to prevent the gladiators from slipping and to absorb the blood.”

(ii)

“Above the podium were the [3] gradūs, or seats of the other spectators, which were divided into maeniāna, or stories. The first [4] maeniānum, consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble seats, was appropriated to the equestrian order. The seats appropriated to the senators and equites were covered with cushions – [5] pulvīllī – which were first used in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval or space, termed a [6] praecinctiō, and forming a continued landing-place from the several staircases in it, succeeded the second maeniānum, where seats were called populāria, for the third class of spectators, or the populus.”

(iii) “Each maeniānum was not only divided from the other by the praecinctiō, but was intersected at intervals by spaces for passages left between the seats, called [7] scalae or scalāria.”

[1] (h)arēna, -ae [1/f]: sand

[2] podium, -ī [2/n]: balcony in an amphitheatre and the wall enclosing it on which were chairs or seats for the senators

[3] gradus, -ūs [4/m]: step

[4] maeniānum, -ī [2/n]: projecting gallery; balcony (of a house)

[5] pulvīllus, -ī [2/m]: little cushion

[6] praecinctiō, praecinctiōnis [3/f]: landing / lobby area between each tier of seats

[7] scālae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: stairs; flight of steps; scālāris, -e [3]: resembling a flight of steps

[vii] velārium, -ī [2/n]: large awning over a theatre or stadium to protect spectators from the heat.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/250325-level-3-riot-at-pompeii-tacitus.html

There was a big bust-up in the stadium at Pompeii in AD59 between rival supporters (nothing has changed), but it led to a number of deaths. It was so violent that Pompeii was banned from holding events for ten years, and of such significance that a fresco depicting the violence was produced at the time. It clearly shows the awning around the top of the stadium. And we still use them.

11.05.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [27] [ii]: reading and comprehension (2) higher level (1)

Part 2

Ōlim Hispānia rēgēs habēbat. Interdum rēgēs in urbe nōn manēbant, sed rūrī habitābant. Saepe tēctum quod rūrī erat magnum erat. Circum tēctum erat mūrus altus. Hodiē Carolus et eius pater in viā prope mūrum ambulant. Portae sunt apertae, per quās pater fīliusque hortum et tēctum inter arborēs vident.

“Antīquīs temporibus,” inquit pater, “mīlitēs circum iānuam stābant.”

“Cūr hoc fēcērunt?” rogat Carolus.

“Sīc eī rēgēs ā perīculō rapiēbant,” respondet pater. “Saepe rēgēs inimīcōs quī eōs etiam necāre audēbant habēbant. Saepe pictūrās in quibus erant pīla quae paucī ex mīlitibus portābant vīdī. Galeās et gladiōs quoque portābant. Haec erant arma splendida. Signa in quibus erant figūrae avium aut animālium portābantur. Tū exempla bona hōrum signōrum antīquōrum Rōmae vīdistī. Mīlitēs Rōmānī quoque signa in proeliīs portābant. Sīc in mediō proeliō mīlitēs loca sua nōscēbant.”

Question [1]

What information is given in the text about where Spanish kings lived? (8)

Question [2]

What information is given in the text about [a] the role of the soldiers in the past (5), and [b] soldiers’ armour and equipment? (8)

Question [1]

Look at the phrase that leads you to the answer, and the marks allocated:

What information is given in the text about where Spanish kings lived. (8)

That the question awards eight marks will tell you that either there are many separate points or, in this case, precise details are needed. Marks reflect distinct pieces of information, not necessarily single words.

(1) Sometimes (2) did not stay in the city

(3) but lived in the countryside

(4) Often (5) the house in the countryside was large

(6) Around (7/8) the house was a ¦ high ¦ wall.

An answer such as “They did not stay in the city. They lived in the countryside. The house was large. The house had a wall” will not gain maximum marks since it is too generalised and misleading.

Question [2]

What information is given in the text about [a] the role of the soldiers in the past (5), and [b] soldiers’ armour and equipment? (8)

Many references are made to soldiers in the text, and so there is a need to answer [a] and [b] according to the topics that are given:

[a] the role of the soldiers in the past (5)

(1) stand around the gate; (2) carry the kings away (3) from danger; (4) kings often had enemies; (5) enemies tried to murder them

[b] soldiers’ armour and equipment (8)

(1) some / a few soldiers carried javelins: it is not enough to say merely “javelins”

(2) they had helmets and swords

(3) splendid / shining weapons

(4) standards were carried

(5) on the standards were images of birds and animals

(6) standards were carried in battles

(7) the standards showed soldiers where they were / their position (8) in the middle of a battle

Key points for higher-level answers:

To gain higher marks, you must give expanded answers that include all the relevant information from the Latin. Do not summarise or generalise.

You need to be precise and pay close attention to detail. This means:

• noticing adverbs (for example sometimes, often),
• noticing adjectives (for example high, splendid, a few),
• and including these details clearly in your answer.

Small words matter: if the Latin includes a word such as sometimes or often, you must reflect this meaning in your answer, by using the same word or an equivalent phrase.

Leaving out these details can lose marks, even if the main idea is correct.

Remember: marks are awarded for distinct pieces of information, so the more accurately you reflect the Latin, the higher your mark will be.

10.05.26: Level 1 (review); verbs; 3rd-iō conjugation present tense

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/409226905021917/

09.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [35] dependent uses [1] purpose [iv] + imperfect subjunctive (2) practice

[1] Complete the Latin translations with the words listed below.

[i] He (1) went to the city (2) in order not (3) to see his father / so that he would (might) not see his father.

Ad urbem (1) __________ (2) __________ patrem (3) __________.

[ii] He (1) was making his way to the city (2) in order (3) to kill his enemy.

[iii] You (pl.) (1) had gone to Italy (2) in order (3) to see the king’s son.

Ad Ītaliam (1) __________  (2) __________ rēgis fīlium (3) __________.

[iv] He (1) did this (2) so that the consul would not (3) be a poor man.

Hoc (1) __________ (2) __________ pauper cōnsul (3) __________.

[v] They (1) made their march quickly (2) so that the enemies would not (3) learn their plans.

Celeriter iter (1) __________ (2) __________hostēs cōnsilia sua (3) __________.

cognōscerent; esset; faciēbat; fēcērunt; fēcit; ierātis; interficeret; īvit; nē; nē; nē; ut; ut; vidēret; vidērētis

[2] Give the Latin translations of the following sentences by selecting one clause from [A] and one clause from [B]

[i] I did this ¦ to help (my) friends.

[ii] He did this ¦ so that he would become a consul.

[iii] We did this ¦ so that you would not defeat the Roman forces.

[iv] He had come to Egypt ¦ in order to free the captives.

[v] The enemies withdrew ¦ in order to avoid a battle.

[vi] The Romans were waging war ¦ so that the enemies would not invade the homeland.

[vii] We advanced to the top of the hill ¦ in order to see the enemy’s camp.

[viii] The whole army was fighting bravely ¦ so that the enemy would not capture the camp.

[ix] An envoy was sent ¦ to ask for peace.

[x] We were sent ¦ to ask for peace.

Note: in the last three sentences, the clause of purpose comes first. While stylistically less common, it does show how word order is flexible.

[xi] In order to help us ¦ they had marched very quickly.

[xii] So that the enemy would not capture the city ¦ the whole army set out.

[xiii] In order that the German soldier would not defeat the commander ¦ I had fought bravely.

[A]

Ad Aegyptum vēnerat

Ad summum collem prōcessimus

Hoc fēcī

Hoc fēcimus

Hoc fēcit

Hostēs sē recēpērunt

Lēgātus missus est

Missī sumus

Nē hostēs urbem caperent

Nē mīles Germānicus ducem superāret

Rōmānī bellum gerēbant

Tōtus exercitus fortiter pugnābat

Ut nōs iuvārent

[B]

celerrimē contenderant.

fortiter pugnāveram.

nē copiās Rōmānās vincerēs.

nē hostēs castra expugnārent.

nē hostēs patriam invāderent.

tōtus exercitus profectus est.

ut amīcōs iuvārem.

ut captīvōs līberāret.

ut cōnsul fieret.

ut hostium castra vidērēmus.

ut pācem rogārēmus.

ut pācem rogāret.

ut pugnam vītārent.

____________________

[1]

[i] Ad urbem (1) īvit (2) nē patrem (3) vidēret.

[ii] Ad urbem iter (1) faciēbat (2) ut inimīcum suum (3) interficeret.

[iii] Ad Ītaliam (1) ierātis (2) ut rēgis fīlium (3) vidērētis.

[iv] Hoc (1) fēcit (2) nē pauper cōnsul (3) esset.

[v] Celeriter iter (1) fēcērunt (2) nē hostēs cōnsilia sua (3) cognōscerent.

[2]

[i] Hoc fēcī ut amīcōs iuvārem.

[ii] Hoc fēcit ut cōnsul fieret.

[iii] Hoc fēcimus nē copiās Rōmānās vincerēs.

[iv] Ad Aegyptum vēnerat ut captīvōs līberāret.

[v] Hostēs sē recēpērunt ut pugnam vītārent.

[vi] Rōmānī bellum gerēbant nē hostēs patriam invāderent.

[vii] Ad summum collem prōcessimus ut hostium castra vidērēmus.

[viii] Tōtus exercitus fortiter pugnābat nē hostēs castra expugnārent.

[ix] Lēgātus missus est ut pācem rogāret.

[x] Missī sumus ut pācem rogārēmus.

[xi] Ut nōs iuvārent celerrimē contenderant.

[xii] Nē hostēs urbem caperent tōtus exercitus profectus est.

[xiii] Nē mīles Germanicus ducem superāret fortiter pugnāveram.

09.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [34] dependent uses [1] purpose [iii] + imperfect subjunctive (1)

[i] The present subjunctive is used in purpose clauses to express future intention:

Ad urbem eō ut pānem emam. │ I’m going to town (in order) to buy bread / so that I may buy bread.

i.e. that is his purpose now

[ii] The imperfect subjunctive is used in purpose to express past intentions:

Ad urbem īvī ut pānem emerem. │ I went to town (in order) to buy bread; the English translation shows no difference. However, if we shift the English into a slightly more archaic form, the difference can be conveyed: I went to town so that I might buy bread.

i.e. that was his purpose at that time in the past

Remember that the subjunctive does not focus on outcome. Whether or not he did buy bread is not taken into consideration. The subjunctive is used to pinpoint the intention.

Hannibal ad Ītaliam vēnit, ut Rōmānōs destrueret │ Hannibal came to Italy (in order) to destroy the Romans [ = so that / in order that he might destroy the Romans].

The English ‘might’ emphasises intention. However, dependent upon context, other modal verbs (could; would) may work equally well. English modality is flexible; Latin tense is not.

Ab arātrō abdūxērunt Cincinnātum ut dictātor esset │ They took Cincinnatus from (his) plough so that he could / would be dictator.

Vēnērunt ut arma nōs rogārent │ They came to ask us for weapons.

Vēnātor per silvam ambulābat ut bēstiās quaereret. │ The hunter was walking through the forest to search for / so that he might search for wild animals.

Scrīpserat, ut nōs monēret │ He had written to warn us / in order that he might warn us.

Prōditor tacuit nē nōs dē perīculō monēret │ The traitor was silent in order not to / so that he wouldn’t warn us about the danger.

Portās obstruit nē mīlitēs oppidum irrumperent  │ He barricaded the gates so that the soldiers would not break into the town.

Fortiter pugnāvērunt nē hostēs urbem caperent. │ They fought bravely so that the enemies might not capture the city.

08.05.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [4]: the Emigration of the Helvetii (i)

Language focus: passive

Ūnā ex parte Helvētiī continentur flūmine Rhēnō, lātō atque altō, quī agrum Helvētiōrum ā Germānīs dīvidit; alterā ex parte monte Iūrā, quī est inter Sēquanōs et Helvētiōs; tertiā ex parte lacū Lemannō et flūmine Rhodanō, quī prōvinciam nostram ab Helvētiīs dīvidit. Itaque Helvētiī bellum contrā fīnitimōs gerere nōn poterant; hominēs igitur magnō dolōre erant plēnī atque impetūs in Gallōs facere cupiēbant.

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On one side the Helvetii are hemmed in by the river Rhine, wide and deep, which separates the land of the Helvetii from the Germans; on another side by Mount Jura, which lies between the Sequani and the Helvetii; on the third side by Lake Geneva and the river Rhône, which separates our province from the Helvetii. And so the Helvetii were not able to wage war against their neighbours; therefore the people were full of great resentment and were eager to make attacks upon the Gauls.

07.05.26: topic; theatre [1] Comenius CXXX; a stage-play

A Stage-play │ Ludus Scēnicus

lūdus, -ī [2/m]: wide variety of meanings including [i] school (esp. primary school); [ii] game; sport; play; [iii] (pl.) lūdī: games; spectacles; stage-plays

scēnicus, -a, -um: pertaining to the stage; theatrical; dramatic

• scēna, -ae [1/f] or scaena, -ae [1/f]: stage; scene (Engl. behind the scenes)

[1]

In a play-house, 1. (which is trimmed with hangings, 2. and covered with curtains, 3.) comedies and tragedies are acted, wherein memorable things are represented; as here, the History of the Prodigal Son, 4. and his Father, 5. by whom he is entertain’d, being return’d home.

In theātrō, 1. (quod vestītur tapētibus, 2. & tegitur sīpariīs, 3.) cōmœdiæ vel tragœdiæ aguntur, quibus repræsentantur rēs memorābilēs ut hic, Historia dē Fīliō Prōdigō, 4. & Patre, 5. ipsīus, ā quō recipitur, domum redux.

[i] theātrum, -ī [2/n]: theatre

[ii] tapēs, tapētis [3/n] rug; carpet;  cloth (decorative) used for tapestries, wall-hangings etc.; also: tapēte, -is [3/n]

That these cloths were used both on floors and walls is reflected in:

• Fr. tapis; Ital. tappeto: carpet; rug
• Gmn. Tapete: wallpaper; Gmn. Teppich: rug, carpet; tapestry

[iii] sīparium, -ī [2/n]: (smaller) curtain in a theatre

• post sīparium: behind the scenes
• also: aulaeum, -ī [2/n]: canopy; covering; theatre curtain

“The curtain of a theatre; which, among the ancients, contrary to modern usage, was lowered from the ceiling to the floor at the beginning of a piece or act, and at the conclusion was drawn up (Smith, Dict. Antiq.)”

• aulaeum mittitur: the curtain is dropped / lowered at the beginning i.e. revealing the scene
• aulaeum tollitur: the curtain is drawn up / raised at the end of an act or scene i.e. hiding the scene

i.e. the terms are the opposite of how would we express the idea now

[iv] cōmoedia, -ae [1/f]: comedy;  tragoedia, -ae [1/f]: tragedy

[v] agō, -ere, ēgī, āctus [3]: (here) act

[vi] repraesentō, -āre [1]: display; exhibit; show

[vii]

theātrum vestītur ¦ tapētibus [ablative] │ the theatre is decked out ¦ in drapes / hangings

theātrum tegitur ¦ sīpariīs [ablative] │ the theatre is covered ¦ with curtains

[2]

The players act being in disguise; the fool, 6. maketh jests.

Āctōrēs (histriōnēs) agunt persōnātī; moriō, 6. dat jocōs.

[i]

āctor, āctōris [3/m]: actor; āctrīx, āctrīcis [3/f]: actress

The terms, apart from the specific meaning they have here, had a wider reference in Ancient Rome to the “doer”, the person who performs an action, hence the derivative agent; in Law, they could refer to the plaintiff, prosecutor or advocate.

[ii] histriō, histriōnis [3/m]: actor; player

This is a good example of how derivatives become more specific over time:

histriōnicus, -a, -um: pertaining to the theatre > Engl. histrionic: pertaining to the theatre; “my histrionic art” (Gilbert). However, it used far more commonly nowadays to refer to over-acting, being excessively and, most likely falsely emotional and attention-seeking; “I’ve had enough of your histrionics.”

[iii] personātus, -a, -um: masked; wearing a mask; pretended; fictitious; an assumed character > Engl. impersonate

[iv] mōriō, mōriōnis [3/m]: absolute fool < Anc. Gk. μωρός [mōrós]: slow; dull; the Engl. deriv. moron directly from Greek

[v] iocus, -ī [2 /m]: joke; jest; any form of amusement e.g. pastime or sport

[3]

The chief of the spectators [i.e. the leading spectators / foremost of the spectators] sit in the gallery, 7. the common sort stand on the ground, 8. and clap the hands, if anything please them.

Spectātōrum prīmāriī, sedent in orchēstrā, 7. plēbs stat in caveā, 8. & plaudit, sī quid arrīdet.

[i] spectātor, spectātōris [3/m]: spectator < spectō, -āre [1]: watch

We would use spectator referring mainly to watching, for example, sports. The term audience is derived from La. audiēns, audientis: hearing / listening; audientia, -ae [2/f]: a group of listeners

[ii] Terminology regarding parts of a theatre has changed over time; Comenius describes a theatre plan that reflects the period in which he lived. The image of the reconstructed Globe Theatre in London shows that the ‘commoners’ stood around the stage whereas the “great and the good” (and the ones with more money) occupied tiered seating in the gallery at higher levels.

(a) Rome: orchēstra, -ae [1/f]: area in front of the stage; nowadays, of course, ‘orchestra’ refers to the musicians who, in a theatre, play in an orchestra pit in front of the stage.

(b) cavea, -ae [1/f]: hollow; cavity; if you look at the shape of a Roman theatre, it is clear why that term was used because it referred to the seating area or to the entire theatre. Comenius narrows it down here to the unseated “hollow” area.

[iii]

plaudō, -ere, plausī, plausus [3]: strike, beat, clap; Engl. deriv. plaudit

• applaudō, -ere [3]: strike one thing against another e.g. hands; applaud
• plausus, -us [4/m]; applausus, -ūs [4/m] (Late): applause

[iv] arrideō, -ēre, arrīsī, arrīsus [3]: laugh / smile at; (here) be pleasing

07.05.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [27] [i]: reading and comprehension (1) lower level

Part 1

Carolus et Maria in Hispāniā sunt. Ibi nūllōs amīcōs habent neque linguam Hispāniae intellegunt. Multa et nōta loca huius terrae tamen vidēre cupiunt. Iam laetitiam magnam sentiunt quod terra est tam pulchra. Ubīque in arboribus sunt avēs. Caelum est semper clārum. Multa oppida parva inter collēs cēlantur. In hīs oppidīs Americānī manēre cupiunt quod ibi quiētem capere possunt. In oppidīs magnīs hominēs semper properant. Semper excitātī sunt.

These questions focus on basic understanding, concrete facts, and simple recall.

Read the wording of the question carefully, and look for any words or phrases in the question that are translations from the text itself and which ‘point’ to where the answer is. Questions asking ‘why’ will often be after a conjunction such as quod or quia (because).Bottom of Form

If marks are given in brackets that gives you an idea of how many separate points of information are needed.

[i] At the beginning of the text, what two facts are given about Carolus and Maria in Spain? (2)

no friends (1); do not understand the language (1)

[ii] What places do they want to see while traveling in Spain? (2)

[iii] How do Carolus and Maria feel about Spain as a land, and why? (2)

[iv] What animals are found in the trees in Spain? (1)

[v] What is the sky like in Spain? (2)

[vi] Where are many small towns in Spain located? (2)

(1) between / among (2) the hills

[vii] Why do Americans like to stay in small towns in Spain?

[viii] What are people in large towns in Spain always doing? (2)

____________________

[i] no friends (1); do not understand the language (1)

[ii] (1) Many (2) well-known places

[iii] Look out for the “little words” that add meaning: (1) very happy / great happiness (magnam laetitiam); (1) so beautiful (tam pulchra) (1)

[iv] birds

[v] (1) always (2) clear

[vi] (1) between / among (2) the hills

[vii] they can rest / find peace and quiet

[viii] (1) hurrying; (2) getting excited

06.05.26: Level 1 (review); daily routine

13.03.24: Daily routine [1]; the principal parts of verbs

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/406244435320164/

13.03.24: daily routine [2]

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/406322575312350/

05.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [33] dependent uses [1] purpose [ii] + present subjunctive (2) practice

When translating you can either:

(1) stay as close as possible to the Latin original e.g. ‘In order that / so that I (you etc.) may (not) do something, or:

(2) change the subordinate clause into an English infinitive e.g. (not) to …, which is a more natural rendering even if it does not reflect the original Latin grammar.

Ad urbem eō ut pānem emam. │ I’m going to town (1) in order that / so that I may buy bread; (2) … in order to buy bread.

(3) In almost all the sentences, the subject is the same in the principal and the subordinate clause.

I’m going to town ¦ so that I may buy bread = I’m going to town to buy bread.

However, in sentences 14 - 16, the subject changes. In English, an infinitive alone would not work. When the subject of the purpose clause in English is not the same as the subject of the main clause, English cannot use an infintive.

Hōs librōs ēmī ut sapientior fīās. │ I’ve bought these books so that you may become wiser.

Iste vir mentītur nē aurum inveniam. │ This man is lying so that I don’t find the gold.

1. Domum festīnō ut fūrēs expellam.
2. Ad Āsiam redeō ut hostēs vincam.
3. Trōiam currō ut captīvōs līberem.
4. Ad Graeciam īs ut discipulam aegram servēs.
5. Domum īs ut senem iuvēs.
6. Rōmam iter facis ut multōs librōs emās.
7. Fīlia ad Galliam venit ut Horātiam videat.
8. Ad urbem it nē patrem videat.
9. Tullia domum fugit ut Lēdam inveniat.
10. Labōrāmus ut dīvitēs fīāmus.
11. Ad Caesarem ībimus ut pācem rogēmus.
12. Ducentōs mittēmus ut hostium iter impediāmus.
13. Ut tūtus sīs, manē in urbe.
14. Nē ignāvum tē pūtēmus, fortiter pugnā!
15. Nē hostēs urbem capiant, tōtus exercitus proficīscitur.
16. Bellum gerimus nē urbem capiātis.

____________________

1. I hurry home to drive out the thieves.
2. I’m returning to Asia to defeat / so that I may defeat the enemy.
3. I run to Troy so that I may free the captives.
4. You go to Greece so that you may save the sick student.
5. You’re going home to help the old man.
6. You’re making the journey to Rome so that you may buy many books.
7. The daughter comes to Gaul so that she may see Horatia.
8. He goes to the city in order not to see (his) father.
9. Tullia flees home to find Leda.
10. We work so that we may become rich.
11. We will go to Caesar to ask for peace.
12. We will send 200 (men) so that we may hinder the enemy’s march.
13. Stay in the city so that you may be safe.
14. Fight bravely so that we don’t think you’re cowardly.
15. So that the enemies do not capture the city, the whole army sets out.
16. We wage war so that you may not capture the city.

05.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [32] dependent uses [1] purpose [i] + present subjunctive (1)

So far, we have looked at the subjunctive in independent clauses — sentences that can stand on their own, for example:

Veniat │ Let him / her come.
Requiēscat in pāce │ May he rest in peace.
Utinam vēnisset │ If only he had come.
Vivāmus, mea Lesbia, atque amēmus │ Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love.

Now we are going to look at the subjunctive in dependent clauses.

A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a sentence and depends on a main (independent) clause to make sense. Subordinate clauses are most often introduced by a conjunction e.g. ‘because’, ‘when’, ‘although’ etc.

(1) I am going to ask her for money ¦ (2) so that I can buy a present.

(1) Let’s go to the seaside ¦ (2) even though it’s raining.

(1) is the principal / main clause; it could stand alone as a separate sentence and still be understood.

(2) is a subordinate clause; it cannot stand alone and is dependent upon the main clause to make sense.

There are many different types of subjunctive use and, as with the independent uses, each type has its own name. Sometimes, the modern English translation does not convey these distinctions. However, slightly older forms of English do convey these distinctions, so we will also use them to make the meaning clear.

the subjunctive of purpose

[1]

(1) John went to the baker’s ¦ (2) (in order) to buy a cake.

(1) John went out of the room ¦ (2) (in order) to avoid her.

French, German and Russian can express (2) in the same way i.e. Fr. pour + infinitive; Gmn. um … zu + infinitive; Russ: chtoby + infinitive

Latin does not express the idea in that way, and, in now rather ‘old fashioned’ English, it can be matched:

(1) John went to the baker’s ¦ (2) in order that / so that he might buy a cake. Yes, it sounds stilted, but it isn’t wrong.

(1) John went out of the room ¦ (2) in order that / so that he might avoid her.

Latin uses the conjunction ut (in order that) + the subjunctive, and the thinking behind both the Latin and the somewhat archaic English equivalent is the same.

John went to the baker’s ¦ (2) to buy a cake.

At the moment statement (2) was made, had John bought the cake? The answer is, of course, no. Whether John did buy a cake, or bought doughnuts instead has nothing to do with it.

The subjunctive expresses an action viewed as intended or anticipated, not asserted as fact.

In other words: (1) John went to the baker’s (2) to buy a cake. (3) The cake which he bought was very expensive. In grammatical terms, (3) is irrelevant. Yes, John did buy a cake, but when statement (2) was made, he hadn’t yet bought it, and Latin would express (2) with the subjunctive.

Mīlitēs pugnant ¦ ut patriam dēfendant. │ The soldiers fight in order to / so that they may defend the homeland.

Imagine that, at the moment the statement is made, a “door” shuts — you cannot see what comes next, because all that matters is that defending the homeland was the purpose, the intention.

[2] The word to look out for is ut (or: utī); while ut has other meanings, it is often the ‘sign’ that a purpose clause is to follow.

With the present subjunctive: future intention

Mīlitēs veniunt ¦ (1) ut oppidum (2) capiant.

Literally: The soldiers are coming ¦ (1) in order that / so that (2) they may capture the town.

> The soldiers are coming to capture the town.

Rōmam īs ¦ (1) ut cīvēs (2) dēfendās.

Literally: You are going to Rome ¦ (1) in order that (2) you may defend the citizens.

> You are going to Rome to defend the citizens.

[ii] A negative purpose i.e. in order not to do something is expressed either with nē alone or with ut … nē … + the subjunctive:

Librum cēlat ¦ (1) nē puerī eum (2) videant.

Literally: He hides the book ¦ (1) in order that (2) the boys may not see it.

> He hides the book so (that) the boys won’t see it.

Some books on Latin grammar use the English word ‘lest’ to illustrate this idea, which, although it means the same, is rather archaic and a little confusing. I only refer to it here since you may come across it:

He hides the book ¦ lest the boys (may) see it [ = so that they don’t see it]

[iii] Examples from Cicero:

Lēgum idcircō servī sumus, ut līberī sīmus. │ For this reason we are subject to the laws, so that / in order that we may be free.

Tusculānum vēnditat, ut … emat Paciliānam domum  │ He is selling his place at Tusculum (in order) to buy Pacilius’ house.

[iv] negative purpose clauses

In Catullus 5, the author, talking about how many kisses he and Lesbia should ‘steal’, suggests it should be thousands:

conturbābimus illa, nē sciāmus, │ we shall shake them into confusion in order that we may not know,

aut nē quis malus invidēre possit │ and so that nobody evil (no wicked person) may be able to envy us,

scālās parārī iubet, nē quam facultātem dīmittat (Caesar)│ he orders ladders to be prepared in order not to let any opportunity slip [literally: in order that he may not let slip …] 

A key point to remember – which will become more apparent in later posts – is that subjunctive of purpose does not express what was done, but why it was done.

04.05.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [3]: Orgetorix

Language focus: passive

Anteā exercitus Rōmānus ab Helvētiīs erat superātus atque propter hanc causam Rōmānī ab Helvētiīs nōn timēbantur. Apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus erat Orgetorīx. Is rēgnī studiō adductus est atque coniūrātiōnem fēcit. Orgetorīx Helvētiōs cum omnibus cōpiīs dē fīnibus suīs in Galliam dūcere cupiēbat atque omnēs gentēs superāre. Suīs facile persuāsit, quod Helvētiī nātūrā locī undique continentur.

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Previously the Roman army had been defeated by the Helvetii, and for this reason the Romans were not feared by the Helvetii. Among the Helvetii, Orgetorix was by far the noblest. He, having been driven on by desire for kingship, formed a conspiracy. Orgetorix wished to lead the Helvetii with all their forces out of their own territory into Gaul and to overpower all the tribes. He easily persuaded his people that the Helvetii are hemmed in on all sides by the nature of their location.