19.05.26: Level 1 (review); Ubi labōrat …? [2]

[i] Ubi labōrat servus? │ Where does the slave work?

in hortō │ in the garden

servus in hortō labōrat

hortus > in hortō

[ii] Ubi labōrat agricola? │ Where does a farmer work?

in agrō │ in a field

agricola in agrō labōrat

ager > in agrō

[iii] Ubi labōrat āctor?  │ Where does an actor work?

in theātrō │ in a theatre

āctor in theātrō labōrat

theātrum > in theātrō

[iv] Ubi labōrat lanista? │ Where does a gladiator trainer work?

in amphitheātrō│ in an amphitheatre

lanista in amphitheātrō labōrat

amphitheātrum > in amphitheātrō

[v] Ubi labōrat sacerdōs? │ Where does a priest / priestess work?

in templō│ in a temple

sacerdōs in templō labōrat

templum > in templō

[vi] Ubi labōrat medicus? │ Where does a doctor work?

in valētūdināriō │ in a hospital

medicus in valētūdināriō labōrat

valētūdinārium > in valētūdināriō

Notes:

[1] Nouns that end in -us in this presentation, and nouns that end in -um are 2^nd declension. Although they have different nominative case forms, they are grouped together because they are almost identical in the endings that they use.

Again, the nouns are put into the ablative case with the preposition in, but, this time, the ending is different.

hortus [masculine]: garden > in hortō: in the garden

templum [neuter]: temple > in templō: in the temple

A noun that ends in -er e.g. ager is also masculine 2^nd declension; nouns of this type take the same endings as any other 2^nd declension noun except that some of them lose /e/ before the ending is added:

ager > in agrō

[2] lanista: the owner, manager, and chief trainer of a gladiatorial school

lūdus gladiātōrius: lanista in lūdō gladiātōriō labōrat

However, as shown in the presentation, he would also accompany gladiators to the games

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator#Schools_and_training

[3] valētūdinārium: hospital; sickbay; very often refers to a military / field hospital

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=valetudinarium-harpers

Video #1: Oliver Reed in the role of Proximo, the lanista in the movie “Gladiator”, a chilling episode

“I do not pay good money for you for your company. I paid it so I could profit from your death.”

Image #1: The remains of the lūdus gladiātōrius near the Colosseum, Rome

Image #2: The remains of the valētūdinārium at Novae, Bulgaria

18.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [39] dependent uses [1] purpose [v] + quī / quō / ubi (ii) practice

[1] Complete the Latin sentences with the words listed below:

[i] They sent a messenger to warn the senate [ = who would warn …]

Nūntium mīsērunt __________ senātum __________.

[ii] He has sent a legion to defend the city. [ = who is to defend …]

Legiōnem mīsit __________ urbem __________.

[iii] He sent a legion to defend the city. [ = who would defend …]

Legiōnem mīsit __________ urbem __________.

[iv] He gave me wine to drink. [ = which I would drink]

Mihi vīnum dedit __________ __________.

[v] He sent soldiers to kill the enemy. [ = who would / were to kill …]

Mīlitēs mīsit __________ hostēs __________.

[vi] He runs in order to arrive more quickly [ = so that he may arrive more quickly]

Currit __________ celerius __________.

[vii] They located the camp where the soldiers would be safe.

Castra posuērunt __________  mīlitēs tūtī __________.

quae; quae; quī; quī; quō; quod; ubi

adveniat; biberem; dēfendat; dēfenderet; essent; interficerent; monēret

[2] Translate the sentence using one phrase from [A] and one phrase from [B]

[i] He has sent soldiers to capture the city.

[ii] The soldiers came to the fields to attack the city.

[iii] He left the cavalry in the camp to work.

[iv] He sent men to announce this.

[v] He used to write books for others to read [ = which others would read]

[vi] He worked quickly in order to finish the work more easily [ = so that he might finish …]

[vii] He’s looking for a place to sleep [ = where he may sleep]

[A]

Ad agrōs militēs venērunt

Celeriter labōrāvit

Equitēs in castrīs relīquit

Librōs scrībēbat

Locum quaerit

Mīlitēs mīsit

Virōs mīsit

[B]

quī hoc nūntiārent

quī labōrārent

quī urbem capiant

quī urbem peterent

quō facilius perficeret opus

quōs aliī legerent

ubi dormiat

____________________

[1]

[i] Nūntium mīsērunt quī senātum monēret.

[ii] Legiōnem mīsit quae urbem dēfendat.

[iii] Legiōnem mīsit quae urbem dēfenderet.

[iv] Mihi vīnum dedit quod biberem.

[v] Mīlitēs mīsit quī hostēs interficerent.

[vi] Currit quō celerius adveniat.

[vii] Castra posuērunt ubi mīlitēs tūtī essent.

[2]

[i] Mīlitēs mīsit quī urbem capiant.

[ii] Ad agrōs militēs venērunt quī urbem peterent.

[iii] Equitēs in castrīs relīquit quī labōrārent.

[iv] Virōs mīsit quī hoc nūntiārent.

[v] Librōs scrībēbat quōs aliī legerent.

[vi] Celeriter labōrāvit quō facilius perficeret opus.

[vii] Locum quaerit ubi dormiat.

18.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [38] dependent uses [1] purpose [v] + quī / quō / ubi (i)

There are other ways in which purpose can be expressed:

[1] quī, quae, quod + subjunctive

[i] Instead of saying ut + subjunctive, Latin often uses quī, quae, quod + subjunctive when the purpose is closely tied to a specific noun, especially a person.

Mittitur L. Dēcidius Saxa ¦ quī locī nātūram perspiciat. │ Lucius Decidius Saxa is sent ¦ to examine the ground [literally: Lucius Decidius Saxa is sent¦ who would examine …].

Cūriō praemittit equitēs ¦ quī prīmum impetum sustineant │ Curio sends forward cavalry ¦ to withstand the first attack.

Mīsī legātōs ¦ quī pācem peterent │ I sent ambassadors ¦ to seek peace [literally: … ambassadors ¦ who would seek peace

[ii] ut + subjunctive can also be used, although there is a slight difference in focus:

Either: Caesar mīlitēs mīsit ut senātōrem necārent; the focus is on the purpose of the action i.e. why the soldiers were sent

Or: Caesar mīlitēs mīsit quī senātōrem necārent; the focus is on who was to perform the action

If there were a need to distinguish them in translation:

Caesar mīlitēs mīsit ¦ ut senātōrem necārent │ Caesar sent soldiers ¦ to kill the senator (focus on the purpose)

Caesar mīlitēs mīsit quī senātōrem necārent │ Caesar sent soldiers ¦ who would / who were to kill the senator (focus on who is intended to perform the action)

[iii] Again, note the time sequences i.e. the tense of the verb in the main clause will determine the tense of the subjunctive verb:

[a]

Ēligit [present indicative] mīlitēs ¦ quī pontem custōdiant [present subjunctive] │ He chooses soldiers ¦ to guard the bridge.

Quaerit [present indicative] magistrum ¦ quī puerōs doceat [present subjunctive] │ He is looking for a teacher ¦ to teach the boys.

Mittimus [present indicative] mīlitēs ¦ quī castra defendant [present subjunctive] │ We send soldiers ¦ to defend the camp.

Exiērunt [perfect indicative = English present perfect] senātōrēs quī pācem ab hostibus petant [present subjunctive] │ The senators have gone out ¦ to seek peace from the enemy.

[b]

Dux mīlitēs dēlēgit [perfect indicative] ¦ quī urbem dēfenderent [imperfect subjunctive] │ The general chose soldiers ¦ to defend the city.

Parēns fīlium ad magistrum dūxit [perfect indicative]  ¦ quī eum docēret [imperfect subjunctive] │ The parent led the boy to a teacher ¦ to teach him / … who would teach him.

Rēx lēgātōs mīsit [perfect indicative]  ¦ quī foedus facerent [imperfect subjunctive]  │ The king sent envoys ¦  to make a treaty / … who would make a treaty.

Exiērunt [perfect indicative = English simple past] senātōrēs quī pācem ab hostibus peterent [imperfect subjunctive] │ The senators went out ¦ to seek peace from the enemy.

[iv] Although this type of purpose clause generally refers to a specific person who is (was) to perform the action, it may also be used with an inanimate noun:

Scrībēbat ōrātiōnēs ¦ quās aliī dīcerent. │ He wrote speeches for other men to deliver [ = … speeches ¦ which other men would deliver].

Dux pontem aedificāvit quī exercitum trānsferret │ The general built a bridge ¦ to move the army across [ = …bridge ¦ which would carry across …].

Parāvit arma ¦ quae hostēs terrērent │ He prepared weapons ¦  to frighten the enemy [ = weapons ¦ which would terrify …].

[2] quō + subjunctive

The ablative form quō + subjunctive expresses purpose when a comparative adverb is expressed, an English example being:

I climbed on top of the wall ¦ so that I could see more easily.

Scūtum dēiēcit ¦ quō celerius fugeret. │ He threw away (his) shield ¦ in order that / so that he might escape more quickly.

Mīlitēs mīsit ¦ quō facilius urbem caperent. │ He sent soldiers ¦ so that they might capture the city more easily.

Lentē loquitur ¦ quō melius intellegāmus. │ He is speaking slowly ¦ so that we may understand better.

Lentē loquēbātur ¦ quō melius intellegerēmus. │ He was speaking slowly ¦ so that we might / would / could understand better.

[3] ubi + subjunctive

Ubi is used with the subjunctive to express the intended purpose of a place i.e. it is not describing the place, but what may be done there.

Dēversōrium quaerō ¦ ubi pernoctem. │ I’m looking for an inn to spend the night [ = where I may spend the night].

Amīcus quaerēbat locum ¦ ubi sedēret. │ (My) friend was looking for a place to sit [ = where he might / could sit].

Domum ēlēgērunt ¦ ubi manērent. │ They chose a house to stay in [ = where they might stay].

Latin Tutorial: clauses of purpose

17.05.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [6]: the Death of Orgetorix

Language focus: passive

Propter eās rēs Orgetorīx ab Helvētiīs est accūsātus atque ipse, ut Helvētiī putant, sibi mortem cōnscīvit. Sed Helvētiī post eius mortem cōpiās omnēs ē fīnibus suīs dūcere cōnstituērunt. Inde oppida omnia, aedificia incensa sunt atque omne frūmentum, praeterquam quod sēcum portābant. Postea Rauricī et Tulingī et Latovicī et Boiī, quī trāns Rhēnum incoluerant, impetum contrā Gallōs facere cōnstituērunt.

____________________

For these reasons Orgetorix was accused by the Helvetii and he himself, as the Helvetii think, took his own life. But after his death the Helvetii decided to lead all their forces out of their territory. Then all the towns and buildings were set on fire, and all the grain, except what they were carrying with them. Afterwards the Raurici and the Tulingi and the Latovici and the Boii, who had lived across the Rhine, decided to make an attack against the Gauls.

16.05.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [27] [iii]: reading and comprehension (3) higher level (2)

Part 3

Nox iam appropinquat et lūx diēī post collēs cēlātur. Ex summō colle nauta et fīlius eius nūbēs spectant. Omnēs rēs nātūrā silent, quod tempus paene est hominēs animāliaque dormīre. Hispānia est terra grāta. Collēs sunt pulchrī. Populus Hispānus est amīcus. Cibus est bonus. Ubīque laetitia incolārum vidētur. Quamquam Hispānia est terra bona et nōta, Carolus et Maria laetitiam nunc sentiunt quod crās domum ībunt. Prīmā lūce Hispāniam relinquent.

What image of modern Spain is given in the text? (12)

To answer a question such as this, bear in mind the term “marshalling”: selecting, organising, and presenting information from the text in a clear and purposeful way.

Statement + evidence from the text

The text presents Spain as:

(1) beautiful and peaceful

[i] naturally calm and silent (omnēs rēs nātūrā silent)

[ii] hills described as beautiful (collēs sunt pulchrī)

(2) pleasant and welcoming

[i] described as a pleasant land (terra grāta)

[ii] friendly people (populus Hispānus est amīcus)

(3) enjoyable to live in or visit

[i] good food (cibus est bonus)

[ii] happiness seen everywhere among the inhabitants (ubīque laetitia incolārum vidētur)

(4) attractive, but not home for the visitors

Quamquam Hispānia est terra bona et nōta, Carolus et Maria laetitiam nunc sentiunt quod crās domum ībunt.

[i] Although Spain is described as good and well known …

[ii] Carolus and Maria are happy to be returning home

15.05.26: Level 1 (review); Ubi labōrat …? [1]

Ubi labōrat …? │ Where does …. work?

[i] Ubi labōrat ¦ coquus? │ Where does a cook work?

in culīnā │ in a kitchen

coquus in culīnā labōrat │ a cook works in a kitchen

culīna > in culīnā

[ii] Ubi labōrat cōnsul? │ Where does a consul work?

in cūriā │ in the Senate House

cōnsul in cūriā labōrat

cūriā > in cūriā

[iii] Ubi labōrat iūdex? │ Where does a judge work?

in basilicā │ in the law court

iūdex in basilicā labōrat

basilica > in basilicā

[iv] Ubi labōrat magister? │ Where does a teacher work?

in scholā │ in a school

magister in scholā labōrat

schola > in scholā

[v] Ubi labōrat vēnditor? │ Where does a seller work?

in tabernā │ in a shop

vēnditor in tabernā labōrat

taberna > in tabernā

[vi] Ubi labōrat bibliopōla? │ Where does a bookseller work?

in tabernā librāriā│ in a bookshop

bibliopōla in tabernā librāriā labōrat

taberna librāria > in tabernā librāriā

Notes:

[1] culīna > in culīnā

The Latin noun you find in a dictionary or vocabulary list is given in the nominative case; the noun changes its ending depending on its function in a sentence.

All the nouns in the presentation belong to the 1^st declension i.e. they all take the same endings.

All the sentences put the nouns ending in -a into the ablative case with the preposition in [in; on].

The difference is slight: the short /a/ sound of the nominative case becomes long in the ablative case i.e. ā. In edited texts this is marked with a macron, a line above the vowel. In original Latin literature that was almost never indicated.

This distinction is not crucial for meaning, since the preposition in already makes the function clear. It mainly affects pronunciation.

It is not of the greatest importance to get that right; if you want to practise the structures of Latin by speaking the language, then the priority is to speak and not to worry too much about whether you sound like a Roman poet!

If you want an approximation, then say the word banana [ba-nA-na; /bəˈnɑː.nə/] where the English pronunciation makes the first and third syllables closer to /u/ as in ‘but’. However, the middle vowel is longer and has the distinct /a/ sound as in father which is the equivalent of Latin ā. I would not lose too much sleep over it.

[2] coquus in culīnā labōrat │ a cook works in a kitchen

The verb is normally at the end of a Latin sentence, but this is by no means a hard and fast rule; coquus labōrat in culīnā [i.e. like the English word order] is also correct.

[3]

cōnsul: a chief magistrate in the Roman Republic, and a political title given during the Roman Empire. The Romans used two different ways of expressing the year, and sometimes both are written in the same text. One of these was consular dating: two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other's actions. Roman years were customarily denoted according to the names of the two consuls who held office that year.

cōnsulāris: somebody who had previously held the office of consul

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consul

[4]

basilica: a large multi-purpose public building which could also function as a law court

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica

Image #1: Marcus Tullius Cicero, the most famous consul of Rome

Image #2: the basilica of Pompeii

14.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [37] dependent uses; tense sequences [ii] practice

These two exercises are deliberately intended for you to focus on subtlety. The sequence of tenses discussed in the previous post do not only apply to clauses of purpose. However, here we will only use this clause type.

[1] Translate the following sentences:

[i] Domum iter fac ut captīvōs dēfendās.

[ii] Domum iter faciēbat ut captīvōs dēfenderet.

[iii] Mox domum iter fēcerit ut captīvōs dēfendat.

[iv] Postērō diē domum iter fēcerat ut captīvōs dēfenderet.

[v] Rōmam adīmus ut aurum celātum inveniāmus.

[vi] 2 subjunctives in the same sentence (hortatory and purpose)

Rōmam (1) adeāmus (2) ut aurum celātum inveniāmus.

[vii] Ad scholam currō ut discipulum cōnfīrmem.

[viii] Ad scholam cucurrī ut discipulum cōnfirmerem.

[ix] Ad Galliam fugite ut hostēs saevōs ēvādere possītis.

[x] Ad Galliam fugērunt ut hostēs saevōs ēvādere possent.

[xi] Pompeiās redībāmus ut vīllam emerēmus.

[xii] Pompeiās redīte ut vīllam emātis.

[xiii] Dominus servum in vincula iēcit nē fugeret.

[xiv] Dominus servum in vincula iaciet nē fugiat.

[xv] Cīvēs saxa iēcerant nē hostēs urbem caperent.

Again, a sentence with (1) a hortatory subjunctive, and (2) subjunctive of purpose

[xvi] Saxa (1) iaciāmus (2) nē hostēs urbem capiant.

[2]

Match the Latin sentences with the English translations listed below.

[i] Puer ad macellum mittitur ut pānem emat.

[ii] Puer ad macellum saepe mittēbātur ut pānem emeret.

Careful with the next two: remember that the Latin perfect can translate in two different ways in English.

[iii] Puer ad macellum missus est ut pānem emeret.

[iv] Puer ad macellum missus est ut pānem emat.

[v] Puer ad macellum missus erat ut pānem emeret.

[vi] Puer ad macellum missus erit ut pānem emat.

[vii] Mitte puerum ad macellum ut pānem emat.

Send the boy to the market so that he may buy bread.

The boy had been sent to the market to buy bread.

The boy has been sent to the market to buy bread.

The boy is being sent to the market to buy bread / … so that (in order that) he may buy bread

The boy was often sent to the market to buy bread. / …so  that (in order that) he would / buy bread

The boy was sent to the market to buy bread.

The boy will have been sent to the market to buy bread.

____________________

[1]

[i] Make a journey home so that you may defend the prisoners.

[ii] He was making a journey home in order that he might defend / (in order) to defend the captives.

[iii] Soon he will have made a journey home in order that he may defend / (in order) to defend the captives.

[iv] The next day he had made the journey home in order that he might defend the captives.

[v] We go to Rome in order that we may find the hidden gold.

[vi] (1) Let’s go (Latin: hortatory subjunctive) to Rome ¦ (2) in order that we may find / (in order) to find the hidden gold.

[vii] I’m running to the school in order that I may support / (in order) to support the student.

[viii] I ran to the school in order that I might support / (in order) to support the student.

[ix] Flee to Gaul in order that you may be able to escape the savage enemies.

[x] They fled to Gaul in order that they might be able to escape the savage enemies.

[xi] We were returning to Pompeii in order that we might buy a villa.

[xii] Return to Pompeii so that you may buy the villa.

[xiii] The master put the slave into chains so that he would not flee.

[xiv] The master will throw the slave into chains so that he may not escape.

[xv] The citizens had thrown stones so that the enemies would not capture the city.

[xvi] (1) Let’s throw (Latin: hortatory subjunctive) stones ¦ (2) so that the enemies do not capture the city.

[2]

[i] The boy is being sent to the market to buy bread / … so that (in order that) he may buy bread

[ii] The boy was often sent to the market to buy bread. / …so  that (in order that) he would buy bread

[iii] The boy was sent to the market to buy bread.

[iv] The boy has been sent to the market to buy bread.

[v] The boy had been sent to the market to buy bread.

[vi] The boy will have been sent to the market to buy bread.

[vii] Send the boy to the market so that he may buy bread.

14.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [36] dependent uses; tense sequences [i]

The term tense sequence can also be applied to English although usage is different. It means that the tense of the verb in the main clause can affect the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause. Although not expressing a subjunctive, we can see this in English indirect speech:

I tell him every day that I need to leave at 5pm.

I told him this morning that I would need to leave at 5pm.

I had told him yesterday that I needed to leave at 5pm.

There are other variations, but the point is that the verb in the main clause (tell / told / had told) affects the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause.

This is an important feature when dealing with the Latin subjunctive because the tense of the main verb will determine the subjunctive tense in the subordinate clause. Possibly without realising it, you have already seen this in operation in the posts on purpose clauses.

[1] and [2] below are referred to in grammar as:

[1] PRIMARY sequence

[2] SECONDARY or HISTORICAL sequence

The verbs in the main clause of [1] are described as primary.

The verbs in the main clause of [2] are described as secondary or historical.

[1] Primary sequence

Ad urbem eō [present indicative] ut pānem emam [present subjunctive].

• I’m going to the city to buy bread / in order that I may buy bread.

Ad Caesarem ībimus [future indicative] ut pācem rogēmus [present subjunctive].

• We shall go to Caesar to ask for peace / in order that we may ask for peace.

Manē [imperative] in urbe ut tūtus sīs [present subjunctive].

• Stay in the city to be safe / so that you may be safe.

[1] The primary tenses are:

[i] Present

• Ad Āsiam redeō ut hostēs vincam│ I’m returning to Asia to defeat / so that I may defeat the enemy.
• Scrībit, ut nōs moneat │ He writes to warn us.
• Magister discipulum hortātur ut crās reveniat │ The teacher encourages the pupil to return / so that he may return tomorrow.
• Labōrāmus ut dīvitēs fīāmus │ We work in order to become rich.
• Bellum gerimus ¦ nē urbem capiātis │ We are waging war so that you do not capture the city.

[ii] Future

• Clamābō ut cēterī audiant │ I shall shout so that the others may hear.
• Scrībet, ut nōs moneat │ He will write to warn us.
• Ducentōs  mittēmus ut hostium iter impediāmus │ We will send 200 (men) so that we may hinder the enemy’s march.
• Bellum gerēmus nē urbem capiātis. │ We shall wage war so that you do not capture the city.

[iii] Imperative (although not a tense, the imperative also creates a primary sequence)

• Scrībe, ut nōs moneās │ Write to warn us [ = in order that / so that you may warn us]

[iv] and [v] are far less common but still form part of this primary sequence:

[iv] Perfect [ = present perfect i.e. ‘have / has done’ something]

• Hoc fēcit ut glōriam habeat │ He has done this to have glory / so that he may have glory.
• Vēnērunt ut arma nōs rogent │ They have come to ask us for weapons.
• Domum īvimus ut amīcōs videāmus │ We have gone home to see (our) friends.
• Equum ēmī nē fessus sim │ I have bought a horse so that I won’t be tired.

[v] Future perfect

• Mox epistulam scripserō ut imperātōrem dē perīculō moneam │ I will soon have written the letter to warn / so that I may warn the commander about the danger.

[2] Secondary sequence

Ad urbem īvī [perfect indicative] ut pānem emerem [imperfect subjunctive].

• I went to the city to buy bread / in order that I might buy bread.

Hoc fēcimus [perfect indicative] nē copiās Rōmānās vincerēs [imperfect subjunctive].

• We did this so that you would not conquer the Roman troops.

Rōmānī bellum gerēbant [imperfect indicative] nē hostēs patriam invāderent [imperfect subjunctive].

• The Romans were waging war so that the enemy would not invade the homeland.

Ad Aegyptum vēnerat [pluperfect indicative] ut captīvōs līberāret [imperfect subjunctive].

• He had come to Egypt in order to free / so that he would free the slaves.

[2] The secondary / historic tenses are:

[i] perfect [= did something]

Scrīpsit, ut nōs monēret │ He wrote (in order) to warn us.

Note: the term ‘perfect’ appears in [1] and [2] because the perfect tense in Latin has a double function which, in English, has two separate forms;  it is the tense which overlaps i.e. in [1] it is the equivalent of the English present perfect [have/ has done something], whereas in [2] – and very commonly – it is the equivalent of the English simple past [did something] i.e. the entire event is over; there is no sense of it being ongoing. Depending upon context:

[1] Hoc fēcit ut cōnsul fīat │ He has done this so that he may become consul.

[2] Hoc fēcit ut cōnsul fieret │ He did this so that he would / might become consul.

[ii] imperfect

Vēnātor per silvam ambulābat ut bēstiās quaereret. │ The hunter was walking through the forest to search for / so that he might search for wild animals.

[iii] pluperfect

Scrīpserat, ut nōs monēret │ He had written to warn us / in order that he might warn us.

13.05.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [5]: the Emigration of the Helvetii (ii)

Language focus: passive

Hīs rēbus Helvētiī adductī sunt et auctōritāte Orgetorīgīs movēbantur; cōnstituērunt igitur omnēs equitēs et peditēs colligere, magnam cōpiam frūmentī comparāre, pācem et amīcitiam cum proximīs cīvitātibus cōnfirmāre. Inde ad eās cīvitātēs Orgetorīx lēgātus est missus. In eō itinere persuādet Casticō, cuius pater ā senātū populī Rōmānī amīcus appellātus erat; atque Dumnorigī, frātrī Divitiacī, quī eō tempore tenēbat principātum in cīvitāte, persuādet.

____________________

The Helvetii were prompted by these events and were influenced by the authority of Orgetorix; they therefore decided to gather all the cavalry and infantry, to collect a large supply of grain, and to secure peace and friendship with the neighbouring states. From there Orgetorix was sent as an envoy to those states. On that journey he persuades Casticus, whose father had been called a friend by the senate of the Roman people, and also Dumnorix, the brother of Divitiacus, who at that time held power in the state.

12.05.26: topic; theatre [2] parts of a theatre

“Terminology regarding parts of a theatre has changed over time.”

Image #1: detailed diagram of Shakespeare’s Globe theatre

(i)  The orchēstra to which Comenius refers are the middle and upper galleries.

(ii) Note [O] which shows the location of musicians above the stage rather than, as is more common now, in front and below the stage. Musicians’ / mintrels’ ‘galleries’ still exist in, for example, manor houses and located above the room.

(iii) [B] is the “yard”, the cavea to which Comenius refers; this was the area around the stage where the ‘groundlings’ stood i.e. the cheapest part of the theatre.

(iv) [H] scaena: stage

(v) [N] a small curtained area (sīpārium) at the rear of the stage

(vi) [T] is the hut containing the “machine” used to lower gods onto the stage, from which the term deus ex machinā is derived i.e. the plot device whereby a seemingly hopeless crisis is suddenly resolved by, for example, the unexpected itnervention of a god or a convenient (although unlikely) event.

Images #2 - #7: The Roman Theatre and Stadium

[i] The term amphitheātrum is from Anc. Gk. ἀμφιθέᾱτρον [amphithéātron] < ἀμφί [amphí: on both sides) + θέᾱτρον [théātron: theatre]

Traditional theatre design reflects the Classical origins i.e. a central performing area with upper seating surrounding the stage most frequently as an eliptical / horseshoe shape. A stadium or a “theatre in the round” concept provides seating around the performing area.

[ii] Comenius’ use of the following terms is not the same as the way the Romans described a theatre.

The orchēstra is the flat semi-circular area [A] in front of [B] the cavea, the tiered seating, shown in the image of the theatre at Bosra. The modern equivalents are [A] the stalls, and [B] the (grand) circle or upper circles (depending on what ticket price you can afford).

[iii] A good example of the way in which words have changed their usage over time:

pulpitum, -ī [2/n]: the physical stage of the theatre > Engl. deriv. pulpit (in a church)

scēna / scaena, -ae [1/f]: the physical stage or the scene being presented > Engl. deriv. scene i.e. a part of a play or the overall visual impression, but not referring to the actors’ performing area

• The English noun stage is from Old French estage (as in French étage to refer to the floor / storey of a building) < La: stō, -āre [1]: stand

[iv] proscēnium / proscaenium, -ī [2/n]: a low wall supporting the front edge of the raised stage (pulpitum), often ornately decorated with niches. In a modern theatre, the proscenium refers to the stage area between the main curtain and the orchestra pit, the proscenium arch being the frame that divides the stage from the auditorium.

The proscēnium may also refer to the stage area in front of the scenery, but our understanding of ‘scenery’ is associated with stage backdrops and items that can be changed or moved. The image from Bosra shows that the ‘backdrop’ was an elaborately decorated permanent background: scaenae frōns.

[v] vomitōrium, -ī [2/n]: contrary to popular belief, this was not a place where you went to vomit! Derived from vomō, -ere [3]: spew forth, it was a passage way below or behind tiered seats to allow actors to enter or leave the stage, and to provide rapid access or exit for large crowds.

[vi] From: A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (Harry Thurston Peck)

(i) “The interior of the amphitheatre was divided into three parts —the [1] arēna, [2] podium, and [3] gradūs. The clear open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was called the arena, because it was covered with sand or sawdust, to prevent the gladiators from slipping and to absorb the blood.”

(ii)

“Above the podium were the [3] gradūs, or seats of the other spectators, which were divided into maeniāna, or stories. The first [4] maeniānum, consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble seats, was appropriated to the equestrian order. The seats appropriated to the senators and equites were covered with cushions – [5] pulvīllī – which were first used in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval or space, termed a [6] praecinctiō, and forming a continued landing-place from the several staircases in it, succeeded the second maeniānum, where seats were called populāria, for the third class of spectators, or the populus.”

(iii) “Each maeniānum was not only divided from the other by the praecinctiō, but was intersected at intervals by spaces for passages left between the seats, called [7] scalae or scalāria.”

[1] (h)arēna, -ae [1/f]: sand

[2] podium, -ī [2/n]: balcony in an amphitheatre and the wall enclosing it on which were chairs or seats for the senators

[3] gradus, -ūs [4/m]: step

[4] maeniānum, -ī [2/n]: projecting gallery; balcony (of a house)

[5] pulvīllus, -ī [2/m]: little cushion

[6] praecinctiō, praecinctiōnis [3/f]: landing / lobby area between each tier of seats

[7] scālae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: stairs; flight of steps; scālāris, -e [3]: resembling a flight of steps

[vii] velārium, -ī [2/n]: large awning over a theatre or stadium to protect spectators from the heat.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/250325-level-3-riot-at-pompeii-tacitus.html

There was a big bust-up in the stadium at Pompeii in AD59 between rival supporters (nothing has changed), but it led to a number of deaths. It was so violent that Pompeii was banned from holding events for ten years, and of such significance that a fresco depicting the violence was produced at the time. It clearly shows the awning around the top of the stadium. And we still use them.

11.05.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [27] [ii]: reading and comprehension (2) higher level (1)

Part 2

Ōlim Hispānia rēgēs habēbat. Interdum rēgēs in urbe nōn manēbant, sed rūrī habitābant. Saepe tēctum quod rūrī erat magnum erat. Circum tēctum erat mūrus altus. Hodiē Carolus et eius pater in viā prope mūrum ambulant. Portae sunt apertae, per quās pater fīliusque hortum et tēctum inter arborēs vident.

“Antīquīs temporibus,” inquit pater, “mīlitēs circum iānuam stābant.”

“Cūr hoc fēcērunt?” rogat Carolus.

“Sīc eī rēgēs ā perīculō rapiēbant,” respondet pater. “Saepe rēgēs inimīcōs quī eōs etiam necāre audēbant habēbant. Saepe pictūrās in quibus erant pīla quae paucī ex mīlitibus portābant vīdī. Galeās et gladiōs quoque portābant. Haec erant arma splendida. Signa in quibus erant figūrae avium aut animālium portābantur. Tū exempla bona hōrum signōrum antīquōrum Rōmae vīdistī. Mīlitēs Rōmānī quoque signa in proeliīs portābant. Sīc in mediō proeliō mīlitēs loca sua nōscēbant.”

Question [1]

What information is given in the text about where Spanish kings lived? (8)

Question [2]

What information is given in the text about [a] the role of the soldiers in the past (5), and [b] soldiers’ armour and equipment? (8)

Question [1]

Look at the phrase that leads you to the answer, and the marks allocated:

What information is given in the text about where Spanish kings lived. (8)

That the question awards eight marks will tell you that either there are many separate points or, in this case, precise details are needed. Marks reflect distinct pieces of information, not necessarily single words.

(1) Sometimes (2) did not stay in the city

(3) but lived in the countryside

(4) Often (5) the house in the countryside was large

(6) Around (7/8) the house was a ¦ high ¦ wall.

An answer such as “They did not stay in the city. They lived in the countryside. The house was large. The house had a wall” will not gain maximum marks since it is too generalised and misleading.

Question [2]

What information is given in the text about [a] the role of the soldiers in the past (5), and [b] soldiers’ armour and equipment? (8)

Many references are made to soldiers in the text, and so there is a need to answer [a] and [b] according to the topics that are given:

[a] the role of the soldiers in the past (5)

(1) stand around the gate; (2) carry the kings away (3) from danger; (4) kings often had enemies; (5) enemies tried to murder them

[b] soldiers’ armour and equipment (8)

(1) some / a few soldiers carried javelins: it is not enough to say merely “javelins”

(2) they had helmets and swords

(3) splendid / shining weapons

(4) standards were carried

(5) on the standards were images of birds and animals

(6) standards were carried in battles

(7) the standards showed soldiers where they were / their position (8) in the middle of a battle

Key points for higher-level answers:

To gain higher marks, you must give expanded answers that include all the relevant information from the Latin. Do not summarise or generalise.

You need to be precise and pay close attention to detail. This means:

• noticing adverbs (for example sometimes, often),
• noticing adjectives (for example high, splendid, a few),
• and including these details clearly in your answer.

Small words matter: if the Latin includes a word such as sometimes or often, you must reflect this meaning in your answer, by using the same word or an equivalent phrase.

Leaving out these details can lose marks, even if the main idea is correct.

Remember: marks are awarded for distinct pieces of information, so the more accurately you reflect the Latin, the higher your mark will be.

10.05.26: Level 1 (review); verbs; 3rd-iō conjugation present tense

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/409226905021917/

09.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [35] dependent uses [1] purpose [iv] + imperfect subjunctive (2) practice

[1] Complete the Latin translations with the words listed below.

[i] He (1) went to the city (2) in order not (3) to see his father / so that he would (might) not see his father.

Ad urbem (1) __________ (2) __________ patrem (3) __________.

[ii] He (1) was making his way to the city (2) in order (3) to kill his enemy.

[iii] You (pl.) (1) had gone to Italy (2) in order (3) to see the king’s son.

Ad Ītaliam (1) __________  (2) __________ rēgis fīlium (3) __________.

[iv] He (1) did this (2) so that the consul would not (3) be a poor man.

Hoc (1) __________ (2) __________ pauper cōnsul (3) __________.

[v] They (1) made their march quickly (2) so that the enemies would not (3) learn their plans.

Celeriter iter (1) __________ (2) __________hostēs cōnsilia sua (3) __________.

cognōscerent; esset; faciēbat; fēcērunt; fēcit; ierātis; interficeret; īvit; nē; nē; nē; ut; ut; vidēret; vidērētis

[2] Give the Latin translations of the following sentences by selecting one clause from [A] and one clause from [B]

[i] I did this ¦ to help (my) friends.

[ii] He did this ¦ so that he would become a consul.

[iii] We did this ¦ so that you would not defeat the Roman forces.

[iv] He had come to Egypt ¦ in order to free the captives.

[v] The enemies withdrew ¦ in order to avoid a battle.

[vi] The Romans were waging war ¦ so that the enemies would not invade the homeland.

[vii] We advanced to the top of the hill ¦ in order to see the enemy’s camp.

[viii] The whole army was fighting bravely ¦ so that the enemy would not capture the camp.

[ix] An envoy was sent ¦ to ask for peace.

[x] We were sent ¦ to ask for peace.

Note: in the last three sentences, the clause of purpose comes first. While stylistically less common, it does show how word order is flexible.

[xi] In order to help us ¦ they had marched very quickly.

[xii] So that the enemy would not capture the city ¦ the whole army set out.

[xiii] In order that the German soldier would not defeat the commander ¦ I had fought bravely.

[A]

Ad Aegyptum vēnerat

Ad summum collem prōcessimus

Hoc fēcī

Hoc fēcimus

Hoc fēcit

Hostēs sē recēpērunt

Lēgātus missus est

Missī sumus

Nē hostēs urbem caperent

Nē mīles Germānicus ducem superāret

Rōmānī bellum gerēbant

Tōtus exercitus fortiter pugnābat

Ut nōs iuvārent

[B]

celerrimē contenderant.

fortiter pugnāveram.

nē copiās Rōmānās vincerēs.

nē hostēs castra expugnārent.

nē hostēs patriam invāderent.

tōtus exercitus profectus est.

ut amīcōs iuvārem.

ut captīvōs līberāret.

ut cōnsul fieret.

ut hostium castra vidērēmus.

ut pācem rogārēmus.

ut pācem rogāret.

ut pugnam vītārent.

____________________

[1]

[i] Ad urbem (1) īvit (2) nē patrem (3) vidēret.

[ii] Ad urbem iter (1) faciēbat (2) ut inimīcum suum (3) interficeret.

[iii] Ad Ītaliam (1) ierātis (2) ut rēgis fīlium (3) vidērētis.

[iv] Hoc (1) fēcit (2) nē pauper cōnsul (3) esset.

[v] Celeriter iter (1) fēcērunt (2) nē hostēs cōnsilia sua (3) cognōscerent.

[2]

[i] Hoc fēcī ut amīcōs iuvārem.

[ii] Hoc fēcit ut cōnsul fieret.

[iii] Hoc fēcimus nē copiās Rōmānās vincerēs.

[iv] Ad Aegyptum vēnerat ut captīvōs līberāret.

[v] Hostēs sē recēpērunt ut pugnam vītārent.

[vi] Rōmānī bellum gerēbant nē hostēs patriam invāderent.

[vii] Ad summum collem prōcessimus ut hostium castra vidērēmus.

[viii] Tōtus exercitus fortiter pugnābat nē hostēs castra expugnārent.

[ix] Lēgātus missus est ut pācem rogāret.

[x] Missī sumus ut pācem rogārēmus.

[xi] Ut nōs iuvārent celerrimē contenderant.

[xii] Nē hostēs urbem caperent tōtus exercitus profectus est.

[xiii] Nē mīles Germanicus ducem superāret fortiter pugnāveram.

09.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [34] dependent uses [1] purpose [iii] + imperfect subjunctive (1)

[i] The present subjunctive is used in purpose clauses to express future intention:

Ad urbem eō ut pānem emam. │ I’m going to town (in order) to buy bread / so that I may buy bread.

i.e. that is his purpose now

[ii] The imperfect subjunctive is used in purpose to express past intentions:

Ad urbem īvī ut pānem emerem. │ I went to town (in order) to buy bread; the English translation shows no difference. However, if we shift the English into a slightly more archaic form, the difference can be conveyed: I went to town so that I might buy bread.

i.e. that was his purpose at that time in the past

Remember that the subjunctive does not focus on outcome. Whether or not he did buy bread is not taken into consideration. The subjunctive is used to pinpoint the intention.

Hannibal ad Ītaliam vēnit, ut Rōmānōs destrueret │ Hannibal came to Italy (in order) to destroy the Romans [ = so that / in order that he might destroy the Romans].

The English ‘might’ emphasises intention. However, dependent upon context, other modal verbs (could; would) may work equally well. English modality is flexible; Latin tense is not.

Ab arātrō abdūxērunt Cincinnātum ut dictātor esset │ They took Cincinnatus from (his) plough so that he could / would be dictator.

Vēnērunt ut arma nōs rogārent │ They came to ask us for weapons.

Vēnātor per silvam ambulābat ut bēstiās quaereret. │ The hunter was walking through the forest to search for / so that he might search for wild animals.

Scrīpserat, ut nōs monēret │ He had written to warn us / in order that he might warn us.

Prōditor tacuit nē nōs dē perīculō monēret │ The traitor was silent in order not to / so that he wouldn’t warn us about the danger.

Portās obstruit nē mīlitēs oppidum irrumperent  │ He barricaded the gates so that the soldiers would not break into the town.

Fortiter pugnāvērunt nē hostēs urbem caperent. │ They fought bravely so that the enemies might not capture the city.