03.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [64] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (2); tense sequences (i) primary

[1]

(1) Nescīs [present indicative] ¦ (2) quid sentiam [present subjunctive] │ (1) You don’t know ¦ (2) what I am thinking. Translations may well retain the subjunctive idea: You don’t know ¦ what I may be thinking.

[2]

(1) Rogābis [future indicative] mē ¦ (2) ubi sit [present subjunctive] (Plautus) │ (1) You’ll ask me ¦ (2) where he is.

[3]

(2) Tū quid agās, (2) ubi sīs, (2) cuius modī istae rēs sint [all present subjunctive] ¦ (1) fac [imperative] mē quam dīligentissimē certiōrem (Cicero)

(1) Please let me know as carefully as possible …

(2) … what you’re doing …

(2) … where you are …

(2) … of what manner these affairs are [ = how matters are progressing / the progress of our affairs]

Examples from Plautus:

• Sceleste, at etiam ¦ quid velim, ¦ id tū mē rogās│ Rascal! And you even ask me that —what I want?
• Neque ille scit ¦ quid det, ¦ quid damnī ¦ faciat│ And he doesn’t know ¦ what he is giving, ¦ what harm he’s causing.
• Nec ¦ quid dicātis ¦ scīre nec mē ¦ cūr lūdātis ¦ possum│ And I can neither know [ = understand]  ¦ what you are saying , nor ¦ why you’re playing with me.
• Mē miseram, ¦ quid agam ¦ nesciō│ Poor me! I don’t know ¦ what I should do.
• Nōn edepol nunc ¦ ubi terrārum sim ¦ sciō│ Good gracious, I don't know ¦ where in the world I am.
• Dēmīror ¦ ubi nunc ambulet Messēniō │ I wonder ¦ where Messenio is walking now.

Indicative and subjunctive of the same verb in the same sentence:

• Gaudeō, etsī ¦ nīl sciō ¦ quod gaudeam│ I am rejoicing, although I haven't the least idea ¦ why I am / should be rejoicing.

This very brief exchange from Plautus shows the same verb as both a direct question in the indicative and an indirect question in the subjunctive.

Quid negōtīst? [ = Quid negotī est?] │ What’s the matter?

Quid negōtī sit ¦ rogās? │ You ask me ¦ what the matter is?

[4]

The Latin subjunctive has no future tense. When a specific future intention is meant, the subjunctive of esse + a future participle is used:

Certum nōn habeō, ¦ ubi sīs [present] aut ¦ ubi futūrus sīs [future] (Cicero) │ I do not know ¦ where you are or ¦ where you are going to be.

primary sequence; practice

Complete the Latin sentences with the words listed below.

[i]

(1) I don’t know (2) why (3) I should be friendly with him [ = why we should love him].

(1) __________ (2) __________ eum (3) __________ (Cicero)

[ii]

I want (1) to know (2) what (3) is happening [ = what is being done] here

Scīre (1) __________ (2) __________ hīc (3) __________.

[iii] Now I cannot conceive (1) where or (2) when (3) I shall see you.

Nunc, nec (1) __________ (2) nec __________ tē (3) __________, possum suspicārī (Cicero)

[iv] You must (1) bear in mind only this: (2) how many cohorts Caesar (3) has at hand against you.

Dēbēs illud sōlum (1) __________, (2) __________ in praesentiā cohortēs contrā tē (3) __________  Caesar (Cicero)

[v] (1) What portents (2) we read every day, (3) you will understand from this pamphlet.

Nōs (1) __________ mōnstra cotīdiē (2) __________, (3) __________ ex illō libellō (Cicero)

[vi] (1) I know both (2) whom (3) I should fear and (4) for what reason.

Ego (1) __________, et (2) __________  (3) __________ et (4) __________ (Cicero)

animadvertere; intellegēs; nesciō; sciō; scīre

cūr; quae; quam ob rem; quandō; quem; quid; quot; ubi

agātur; amēmus; habeat; legāmus; metuam; sim vīsūrus

____________________

[i] Nesciō, cūr illum amēmus.

[ii] Scīre volō quid hīc agātur.

[iii] Nunc, nec ubi nec quandō tē sim vīsūrus, possum suspicārī

[iv] Dēbēs illud sōlum animadvertere, quot in praesentiā cohortēs contrā tē habeat Caesar.

[v] Nōs quae mōnstra cotīdiē lēgāmus, intellegēs ex illō libellō.

[vi] Ego sciō, et quem metuam et quam ob rem.

03.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [63] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (1)

[1] Direct question: “What are you doing?”

[a] A direct question is an independent sentence introduced by interrogative words and phrases e.g. who? what? where? what time?

• Who is that man?
• Where is the station?
• Why did you do that?
• What time is it?

[b] A direct question in an independent sentence may also be expressed by inversion of the subject and verb or with the inclusion of do / does?

• Is he English?
• Does he speak French?

[2] Indirect question: I want to know what you are doing.

[a] An indirect question is introduced by a principal clause, the question itself contained within the subordinate clause:

• I want to know ¦ who that man is.
• Do you know ¦ where the station is?
• Can you tell me ¦ why you did that?
• Does anybody have any idea ¦ what time it is?

[b] Direct questions introduced by inversion or do / does:

• Do you know if he’s English? Do you know whether he’s English (or not)?
• Do you know if he speaks French? Do you know whether he speaks French (or not)?

[3] An important point to remember is that, although we use the term indirect question, no question is necessarily being asked:

• I’ve no idea ¦ where the library is.
• I know ¦ how the magician does that trick.
• The teacher told me ¦ how often John hadn’t done his homework.
• I’m not sure ¦ if he’s English.
• I don’t know ¦ whether or not he speaks French.

[4] The constructions laid out above are very similar to the way in which Latin distinguishes between direct and indirect questions. In Latin, however, all indirect questions use the subjunctive.

[5] We’ll begin with the way in which Latin most often introduces indirect questions – with a question word. Not all question words are included, but more than enough to see how the subjunctive is operating in the indirect question. Remember that, although we call them ‘indirect questions’, this rule applies to any subordinate clause introduced by a question word: the verb is subjunctive.

cūr: why

• Nesciō ¦ cūr nōn possint (Cicero) │ I don’t know ¦ why they can’t.

quārē: why

• Quārē id faciam fortasse requīris? (Catullus) │ Do you ask ¦ why I do this ¦ perhaps?

quis / quae / quid: who, which, what

• Quaerō ¦ quis sit nocēns (Cicero) │ I ask ¦ who is guilty.
• Quid ipse sentiam ¦ expōnam (Cicero) │ I will explain ¦ what I think.
• Rogat mē ¦ quid sentiam (Cicero) │ He asks me ¦ what I think.
• At ille cautior perītōs locōrum rogat, ¦ quis aestus sit, ¦ quae signa dent nūbēs (Seneca the Younger) │ But he, more cautious, asks the experts of the place, ¦ what the tide is like, ¦ what signs the clouds give.

ubi: where

• Ubi sit ¦ ego sciō (Plautus) │ I know ¦ where she is.
• Quaerunt ā mē ¦ ubi sit pecūnia (Cicero) │ They are asking me ¦ where the money is.

quō: to where

• Quō eat ¦ nōn cōgitat (Honoratus) │ He does not think about ¦ where he is going (to)

quandō: when

• Nesciō ¦ quandō rogem (Seneca the Elder) │ I do not know ¦ when I will ask.

quōmodo: how

• Quōmodo hinc abeam ¦ nesciō (Terence) │ I don't know ¦ how I may get away from here.

quam: how

• Quam sīs audāx ¦ omnēs intellegere potuērunt (Cicero) │ All could understand ¦ how bold you are.

quot: how much / many

• Scīre equidem volō ¦ quot mihi sint dominī (Terence) │ For my part, I should like to know ¦ how many masters I have [literally: there are to me]

[6] In the quotations above, a number of different verbs were used to introduce the indirect question, for example:

cōgitō: I think

expōnō: I explain

intellegō: I understand

nesciō: I do not know

rogō: I ask

sciō: I know

The image shows a fuller, but still not exhaustive list of verbs of asking, knowing, saying, perceiving, or considering that may signal an indirect question.

02.07.26: Level 3(+) (review); weather (4); hot and cold running Romans [2]

[5]

ārdeō, -ēre [2]: burn (consumed by fire); the verb is a good example of conveying both literal and figurative meaning

Domus ārdēbat in Palātiō nōn fortuitō, sed oblātō incendiō (Cicero)

• The house was burning on the Palatine, not by chance, but because the fire had been deliberately set.

Ārdent oculī (Plautus)

• His eyes are glowing.

Ārdēbat amōre illīus hospitae (Cicero)

• He was burning with love for that hostess.

[6]

aestus, -ūs [4/m]: [i] heat / fire [ii] tide [iii] passion

aestuōsus, -a, -um:  [i] hot / sultry [ii] agitated

aestuō, -āre [1]: [i] (of fire) burn; (as a result of fire) be hot / glow [ii] burn (with desire) [iii] be in agitation (or other similar upset or turmoil)

Aestuat ut clausīs rapidus fornācibus ignis (Vergil)

• As the rapacious fire blazes in a sealed furnace.

Vēnit enim tempus, quō torridus aestuat āēr, incipit et siccō fervēre terra Cane (Propertius)

• For the season has come when the scorching air seethes with heat, and the earth begins to burn beneath the dry Dog-star.

Exustus ager morientibus aestuat herbīs (Vergil)

• The scorched land burns with withering grasses.

Aestuat unda mināx (Lucan)

• The threatening wave seethes.

Quod ubi audītum est aestuāre illī quī pecūniam dederant (Cicero)

• And when this was known, they began to fret who had paid the money.

Sīc anceps inter utrumque animus aestuat (Quintilian)

• Consequently, the mind wavers in doubt between the two alternatives.

[7] ferveō, -ēre [2] or fervō, -ere [3]: [i] be hot / burn / boil [ii] be inflamed / agitated

aqua fervēns: boiling water

opere omnis sēmita fervet (Vergil)

• The whole trail swarms with activity.

Fōns mediā nocte fervet, mox et paulātim tepēscēns fit lūce frīgidus, tunc ut sōl surgit ita subinde frīgidior per merīdiem maximē riget, sūmit dein tepōrem iterum, et prīmā nocte calidus, atque ut illa prōcēdit ita caldior rūrsus cum est media perfervet (Pomponius Mela)

Fōns mediā nocte fervet, │ The spring boils at midnight;

mox et paulātim tepēscēns fit lūce frīgidus, │ soon, and gradually growing tepid, it becomes cold at dawn

tunc ut sōl surgit ita subinde frīgidior per merīdiem maximē riget, │ then, as the sun rises, it grows successively colder and is at its most numb / chilled about midday

sūmit dein tepōrem iterum, │ it then takes warmth again,

et prīmā nocte calidus │ and is warm in the first part of the night,

atque ut illa prōcēdit ita caldior rūrsus cum est media perfervet │ and as it (the night) goes on, it becomes warmer; then, when it is the middle (of the night) / midnight, it grows very hot.

02.07.26: Level 3(+) (review); weather (3); hot and cold running Romans [1]

The vocabulary listed here and in the next post is not confined to weather; some words are also used to convey people’s emotions e.g. burning with passion, or in specific contexts e.g. fire.

At this level you should begin to differentiate between literal / physical and figurative meaning. Compare:

• She’s been out in the snow. She’s cold (literal / physical).
• I don’t like her. She’s very cold (figurative) towards me.

[1]

algus, -ūs [4/m]: feeling of cold / coldness

algidus, -a, -um: cold

algeō, -ēre [2]: feel cold

algēscit: it’s getting cold

Verbs with the infix -sc- are known as inchoative or inceptive verbs denoting the beginning or intensification of an action, for example:

liquēre [2]: to be fluid / liquid > nix liquēscit: the snow is melting

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/inchoative%20verbs

[2]

frīgus, -oris [3/n]: cold(ness)

frīgidus, -a, -um: cold

frīgidulus, -a, -um: a little cold; chilly

frīgeō, -ēre: be cold / chilly; freeze

frīgēscit: it’s getting cold

[3]

tepor, -ōris [3/m]: (gentle) warmth

tepidus, -a, -um: warm

tepeō, -ēre [2]: be warm / lukewarm / tepid

tepēscit: it’s getting (moderately) warm

[4]

calor, -ōris / caldor, -ōris [3] warmth; heat

calidus, -a, -um / caldus, -a, -um: hot

caleō, -ēre [2]: be warm / hot; glow

calēscit: it’s getting warm / hot

Hīc Sīrius alget, brūma tepet (Statius)

• Here Sirius (the Dog Star) is cold, midwinter is warm.

Dum calet, dēvorārī decet iam (Plautus)

• While he's warm, it’s now proper for him to be gobbled up

atque etiam maria agitāta ventīs … tepēscunt (Cicero)

• and even the seas, stirred by the winds, grow warm

Per aestātem caelum merīdiānum sōle exoriente calēscit, merīdiē ārdet; item quod spectat ad occidentem, sōle exortō tepēscit, merīdiē calet, vespere fervet (Vitruvius)

• During the summer the southern sky, when the sun rises, grows warm; at midday it burns. Likewise that which faces west, when the sun has risen, becomes warm; at midday it is hot; in the evening it is blazing.

01.07.26: Level 2 (review); weather (2); Comenius (1658) [2]; VIII: The Clouds│Nūbēs

A vapour  ascendeth from the water. │ Vapor ascendit ex aquā.

From it a cloud is made, and a white mist, near the earth. │ Inde nūbēs fit, et nebula prope terram.

Rain and a small shower distilleth out of a cloud, drop by drop.│ Pluvia et imber stillat ē nūbe guttātim.

Which being frozen, is hail, half frozen is snow, being warm is mel-dew.│ Quæ gelāta, grandō, semigelāta, nix, calefacta, rūbīgō est.

In a rainy cloud, set over against the sun, the rainbow appeareth.│ In nūbe pluviōsā, opposita sōlī, īrīs appāret.

A drop falling into the water maketh a bubble, many bubbles make froth. │ Gutta incīdēns in aquam, facit bullam, multæ bullæ faciunt spūmam.

Frozen water is called ice, dew congealed is called a white frost.│ Aqua congelāta glaciēs, rōs congelātus dīcitur pruīna.

Thunder is made of a brimstone-like vapour, which breaking out of a cloud with lightning, thundereth and
striketh with lightning.│ Tonitrus fit ex vapōre sulphurēō, quod ērumpēns ē nūbe cum fulgure, tonat & fulminat.

[1] Nouns

First Declension

aqua, -ae [1/f]: water

bulla, -ae [1/f]: bubble

gutta, -ae [1/f]: drop

nebula, -ae [1/f]: mist, fog

pluvia, -ae [1/f]: rain

pruīna, -ae [1/f]: hoarfrost, white frost

spūma, -ae [1/f]: froth, foam

terra, -ae [1/f]: earth, land

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%201st%20%2F%202nd

Third Declension

imber, imbris [3/m]: rain-shower, storm

rōs, rōris [3/m]: dew

sōl, sōlis [3/m]: sun

vapor, -ōris [3/m]: vapor, steam

grandō, -inis [3/f]: hail

īris, -idis [3/f]: rainbow

nix, nivis [3/f]: snow

nūbēs, -is [3/f]: cloud

rūbīgō, -inis [3/f]: mildew, rust

fulgur, -uris [3/n]: lightning

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%203rd

Fourth Declension

tonitrus, -ūs [4/m]: thunder

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%204th

Fifth Declension

glaciēs, -ēī [5/f]: ice

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%205th

[2] Verbs

First Conjugation

congelō, congelāre [1]: freeze, congeal

• congelātus, -a, -um: (having been) frozen

gelō, gelāre [1]: freeze

• from: gelū, -ūs [4/n]: frost, cold, chill
• (semi-)gelātus: (half) frozen

fulminō, fulmināre [1]: strike with lightning

stillō, stillāre [1]: distill, drip

tonō, tonāre [1]: thunder

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/conjugations%3A%201st

Second Conjugation

appāreō, appārēre [2]: appear

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/conjugations%3A%202nd

Third Conjugation

ascendō, ascendere [3]: ascend, rise

dīcō, dīcere [3]: say, call

• dīcitur: (s)he / it is called

Third Conjugation -iō

calefaciō, calefacere [3]: warm, heat

• calefactus, -a, -um: (having been) heated

faciō, facere [3]: make

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/conjugations%3A%203rd%20%26%203-io

Irregular

fīō, fierī [irreg.]: become, be made

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/07/161025-level-3-irregular-verbs-17-fio.html

[3]

guttātim: drop-by-drop

gutta + -ātim

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/08/200924-adverbs-8-tim-atim.html

30.06.26: Level 1 (review); weather (6) vocabulary; verbs [iii] list and links

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/200424-verbs-describing-weather.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/200424-verbs-describing-weather-2.html

Quāle caelum est? │ What’s the weather like?

grandinat: it’s hailing

nūbilat: it grows dark / it is cloudy

fulgurat: there is lightning / it lightens

lūcet: it is daybreak / it is light

• Sōl lūcet: the sun shines
• Sōl omnibus lūcet (Petronius) ¦ The sun shines on everyone
• lūcēscit: it’s getting light; it’s dawning

Note: -sc- that marks an inchoative or inceptive verb; these verbs indicate the beginning of an action or an action that is increasing:

• frigēscit: it’s getting cold
• calēscit: it’s getting warm / hot
• glaciēs liquēscit: the ice is melting

Discussed here: https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/inchoative%20verbs

ningit: it snows

pluit: it rains

• lēniter pluit: it’s raining gently; it’s drizzling
• urceātim pluit: it’s raining buckets

(dis)serēnat: it clears up / it becomes clear

rōrat: dew forms

tonat: it’s thundering

• Iuppiter tonat: Jupiter thunders

ventus spīrat / flat: the wind blows

30.06.26: Level 1 (review); weather (5) vocabulary; verbs [ii]

Label the images with the vocabulary listed:

calēscit

frigēscit

fulgurat

grandinat

lēniter pluit

lūcet; lūcēscit

ningit

nūbilat

pluit

rōrat

serēnat

tonat

urceātim pluit

30.06.26: Level 1 (review); weather (4) vocabulary; verbs [i]

Match the English verbs and verbal phrases below with the Latin in the word cloud:

it is hailing

it grows dark / it is cloudy

there is lightning / it lightens

the sun shines

it is getting light / it is dawning

it is getting cold

it is getting warm / hot

it is snowing

it is raining

it is raining gently / it is drizzling

it is raining buckets

it clears up / it becomes clear

dew forms / it is dewy

it is thundering

the wind blows (2 phrases)

29.06.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [62] dependent uses [5] verbs of fearing (4) practice [ii]

These exercises are more challenging and designed to give you further practice in recognising different forms of the subjunctive. Again, the translations retain ‘may’ and ‘might’ to convey the subjunctive idea. Complete each exercise with the verbs and phrases listed below.

[1] primary sequence

[a] with the present subjunctive

[i] And I fear that you may think too much │ Metuōque, nē tū nimium __________. (Cicero)

[ii] I fear that I may be either troublesome to you, judges, or (that I may) seem to distrust your intelligence │ Vereor nē aut molestus __________ vōbīs, iūdicēs, aut nē ingeniīs vestrīs  __________ diffīdere. (Cicero)

[iii] I am horribly afraid that I may be overwhelmed at Tusculum. │ Equidem vereor maximē, nē in Tusculānō __________. (Cicero)

[iv] But there is a danger that we may be overwhelmed. │ At __________, nē __________. (Cicero)

[v] I fear that all my old misdeeds may have been discovered. │ Timeō nē male facta antīqua mea __________ omnia. (Plautus)

[vi] But I fear that the woman may have been corrupted in my absence. │ Sed vereor nē mulier mē absente hīc __________. (Terence)

[b] with the perfect subjunctive

[i] What, by Hercules, I fear, is that it may have had more force in deterring … │ Quod mē hercule vereor nē maiōrem vim ad dēterrendum __________. (Cicero)

[ii] So I am afraid that we have lost the tribunes’ favour. (Cicero) │  Vereor nē et studia tribūnōrum __________. (Cicero)

āmīserīmus; corrupta sit; habuerit; opprimāmur; opprimar; perīculum est; putēs; sim; sint inventa; videar

[2] historic sequences

[a] With the imperfect subjunctive

[i] Caesar never feared that the legions would be conquered.

Caesar numquam __________  nē legiōnēs __________ .

[ii] We were afraid that enough grain supply could not be sent.

__________  ut satis reī frūmentāriae mittī __________ .

[iii] The Romans themselves greatly feared that the Helvetii might march [ = make a journey] through the province.

Rōmānī ipsī magnopere __________  nē Helvētiī iter per prōvinciam __________ .

[b] With the pluperfect subjunctive

[i] There was great fear that the enemies might have captured / had captured the city.

__________  nē hostes urbem __________ .

[ii] Great fear arose that the slave might have / had killed his master.

__________  nē servus dominum suum __________  .

[iii] The sailor’s wife was afraid that the ship might have been / had been destroyed.

Uxor nautae __________  nē nāvis __________ .

[iv] I feared that the letter might not have been / had not been sent.

__________  ut epistula __________ .

cepissent; dēlēta esset; facerent; fuit magnus timor; interfēcisset; magnus timor ortus est; missa esset; posset; timēbam; timēbāmus; timuit; verebāntur; verēbātur; vincerentur

____________________

[1]

[a]

[i] Metuōque, nē tū nimium putēs.

[ii] Vereor nē aut molestus sim vōbīs, iūdicēs, aut nē ingeniīs vestrīs videar diffīdere.

[iii] Equidem vereor maximē, nē in Tusculānō opprimar.

[iv] At perīculum est, nē opprimāmur.

[v] Timeō nē male facta antīqua mea sint inventa omnia.

[vi] Sed vereor nē mulier mē absente hīc corrupta sit.

[b]

[i] Quod mē hercule vereor nē maiōrem vim ad dēterrendum habuerit.

[ii] Vereor nē et studia tribūnōrum āmīserīmus.

[2]

[i] Caesar numquam timuit nē legiōnēs vincerentur.

[ii] Timēbāmus ut satis reī frūmentāriae mittī posset.

[iii] Rōmānī ipsī magnopere verēbantur nē Helvētiī iter per prōvinciam facerent.

[iv] Fuit magnus timor nē hostes urbem cepissent.

[v] Magnus timor ortus est nē servus dominum suum interfēcisset.

[vi] Uxor nautae verēbātur nē nāvis dēlēta esset.

[vii] Timēbam ut epistula missa esset.

29.06.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [61] dependent uses [5] verbs of fearing (3) tense sequences

The subjunctive appears in a variety of constructions, but fear clauses provide a particularly clear way to examine how primary and historic tense sequences affect meaning and how Latin subjunctive verbs can be translated. The accompanying image includes all the subjunctive forms of both active and passive verbs discussed, along with the nuances they convey.

English does not always convey the inherent uncertainty of a fear clause, whereas Latin does through the subjunctive. Therefore, I have used both (1) ‘may’ and ‘might’ to retain the uncertainty, and (2) English verb forms that do not explicitly show it.

Primary Sequence

[a] simultaneous / future action

Timet [present indicative] nē hostēs urbem capiant [present subjunctive]. │ He fears that the enemy (1) may / (2) will capture the city.

Timet nē urbs ab hostibus capiātur [present subjunctive; passive]. │ He fears that the city (1) may be / (2) will be captured by the enemy.

[b] completed action

Timet nē hostēs urbem cēperint [perfect subjunctive]. │ He fears that the enemy (1) may have (2) have captured the city.

Timet nē urbs ab hostibus capta sit [perfect subjunctive; passive]. │ He fears that the city (1) may have been / (2) has been captured by the enemy.

Historic Sequence

[a] simultaneous / future action

Timēbat [imperfect indicative] nē hostēs urbem caperent [imperfect subjunctive]. │ He was afraid that the enemy (1) might / (2) would capture the city.

Timēbat nē urbs ab hostibus caperētur [imperfect subjunctive; passive]. │ He was afraid that the city (1) might be / (2) would be captured by the enemy.

[b] completed action

Timēbat nē hostēs urbem cēpissent [pluperfect subjunctive]. │ He was afraid that the enemy (1) might have / (2) had captured the city.

Timēbat nē urbs ab hostibus capta esset [pluperfect subunctive; passive]. │ He was afraid that the city (1) might have been / (2) had been captured.

The fears of Cicero

One of the most significant figures in Classical Latin literature is Cicero, and his letters and speeches provide very good contextual examples of how the language works. It is important, therefore, to see authentic quotations to take you beyond the text books. Below are examples of the way in which the primary and historic tense sequences operate from some of Cicero’s correspondence with Atticus.

[1] Primary sequence

Timeō, ¦ nē absim │ I am afraid ¦ I may be absent.

Timeō, ¦ nē in eum exsistam crūdēlior │ I fear ¦ that I might come across as too cruel toward him.

Metuō ¦ nē obsit │ I fear ¦ he may cause trouble.

Haec metuō equidem nē sint somnia │ I fear these may be dreams.

Nunc vērō sībilīs volgī, sermōnibus honestōrum, fremitū Ītaliae vereor nē exārserint [perfect subjunctive]. │ But now I am afraid they might have flared up from the hisses of the crowd, the talk of the loyalists, and the murmurs of Italy.

Note the two different ways of expressing the negative i.e. ut or nē … nōn

Et tamen vereor, ¦ ut hīs ipsīs contentus sit │ And yet I fear that he might not be content with these very things.

Sed timeō, ¦ nē nōn impetrem │ I fear I may not succeed.

Vereor, ¦ nē exercitum firmum habēre nōn possit │ I fear he may not be able to have a reliable army. 

[2] Historic sequence

Hanc epistulam … veritus sum ¦ nē solveret │ I was afraid ¦ he might open this letter.

Tū autem veritus es fortasse, nē ego invītus audīrem But perhaps you feared that I should be sorry at the news [literally: … that I might listen unwillingly].

Nē interclūderer, metuēbam │ I was afraid that I might be shut in there.

Nōn sum veritus, nē vidērer adsentārī │ I was not afraid that I might appear / be seen to flatter him.

“Quid vōs, … praesidium ā nōbīs postulābātis? an, nē nummī vōbīs ēriperentur, timēbātis?” │ “Why did you ask us for a guard? Were you afraid that coins would be snatched from you?”

29.06.26: Level 3(+) (review); weather (2); weather (and historical) forecast [ii]; notes

Grātiās tibi agō, Claudī. Tōtam per Ītaliam aestuōsa est hodiē, ut semper hīs temporibus annī. Praesāgia tempestātis crāstinae autem sunt bona. Ventōsum est autem in Graeciā, praesertim hīc in Macedoniā. Alexander Magnus et prīmus Ptolemaeus in Macedoniā nātī sunt. Et ventōsum est apud Actium, ubi Caesar Octāviānus nāvālī proeliō superāvit Cleopatram Antōniumque. In Aegyptō, rēgnō Cleopatrae terrāque pȳramidum āridum est. Ecce Nīlus, fluēns in Mare Nostrum! Ecce Alexandrīa, ubi est bibliothēca clārissima et Pharōs nōtissimus. In Aegyptō autem sunt praesāgia tempestātis futūrae mala.

praesāgium, -ī [2/n]: (literally) premonition; in this text, which is a modern text for learners, a number of words could be used to indicate “forecast” e.g. praedictiō, auspicium. In the Classical period, however, such words referred to ‘premonitions’ or ‘portents’ of future events. Therefore, we are really dealing with a Neo-Latin reinterpretation of the word.

āridus, -a, -um: dry; parched; arid

hodiērnus, -a, -um: today(’s)

crāstinus, -a, -um: tomorrow(’s)

futūrus, -a, -um: [literally] about to be

tempestās hodiērna: today’s weather

tempestās crāstina: tomorrow’s weather

tempestās futūra: future weather

tempus, temporis [3/n]: time; season

hīs temporibus annī [ablative of time when]: at these times of the year

See also:

Topic: celestial sphere

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/topic%3A%20celestial%20sphere

Topic: the Elements

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/topic%3A%20the%20elements

Level 3: seasons

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/12/230225-level-3-reading-four-seasons-1.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/12/270225-level-3-reading-four-seasons-2.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/12/030325-level-3-reading-four-seasons-3.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/12/060325-level-3-reading-four-seasons-4.html

29.06.26: Level 3(+) (review); weather (1); weather (and historical) forecast [i]; listening

Listen to the recording without looking at the transcript and choose [A], [B] or [C]:

[i] Throughout Italy today’s weather is:

[A] warm

[B] sweltering

[C] typical for summer

[ii] At this time of year the weather is:

[A] normal

[B] unusual

[C] sometimes like this

[iii] The forecasts are good for:

[A] later today

[B] the weekend

[C] tomorrow

[iv] In Greece:

[A] it is stormy

[B] it is windy

[C] there’s a gentle breeze

[v] What connection do Alexander the Great and Ptolemy have with Macedonia?

[A] They were both kings there.

[B] They both died there.

[C] They were born there.

[vi] What took place at Actium?

[A] a naval battle

[B] the defeat of Octavian

[C] a great storm

[vii] What two pieces of information are given about Egypt?

[A] kingdom of Cleopatra; land of the pyramids

[B] land of the pyramids; kingdom of Ptolemy

[C] a desert; kingdom of Cleopatra

[viii] What is the weather like in Egypt?

[A] humid

[B] wet

[C] dry

[ix] the Nile flows into:

[A] the Tyrrhenian Sea

[B] the Mediterranean

[C] the Black Sea

[x] At Alexandria there are:

[A] a library and a lighthouse

[B] a lighthouse and a large statue

[C] a library and a tower

[xi] In Egypt the forecasts are:

[A] good for today

[B] bad for the days to come

[C] bad for tomorrow

____________________

Grātiās tibi agō, Claudī. Tōtam per Ītaliam aestuōsa est hodiē, ut semper hīs temporibus annī. Praesāgia tempestātis crāstinae autem sunt bona. Ventōsum est autem in Graeciā, praesertim hīc in Macedoniā. Alexander Magnus et prīmus Ptolemaeus in Macedoniā nātī sunt. Et ventōsum est apud Actium, ubi Caesar Octāviānus nāvālī proeliō superāvit Cleopatram Antōniumque. In Aegyptō, rēgnō Cleopatrae terrāque pȳramidum āridum est. Ecce Nīlus, fluēns in Mare Nostrum! Ecce Alexandrīa, ubi est bibliothēca clārissima et Pharōs nōtissimus. In Aegyptō autem sunt praesāgia tempestātis futūrae mala.

____________________

[i] B

[ii] A

[iii] C

[iv] B

[v] C

[vi] A

[vii] A

[viii] C

[ix] B

[x] A

[xi] B

28.06.26: Level 2 (review); weather (1); Comenius (1658) [1]; VI: The Air│Aër

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/170825-topic-elements-2-comenius-1658.html

The air │ Aër*

A cool air breatheth gently. │ Aura spīrat lēniter.

The wind bloweth strongly. │ Ventus flat validē.

A storm throweth down trees. │ Procella sternit arborēs.

A whirl-wind turneth it self in a round compass. │ Turbō agit sē in gȳrum.

A wind under ground causeth an earthquake.** │ Ventus subterrāneus excitat terræ mōtum.

An earthquake causeth gapings of the earth, (and falls of houses).│ Terræ mōtus facit lābēs (& ruīnās).

*depending on the edition, the word is marked with a diaresis to indicate that the two vowels are pronounced separately e.g. as in the English surname Brontë and Fr: naïf; it is now written as āēr

** “The scientific study of earthquakes is comparatively new. Until the 18th century, few factual descriptions of earthquakes were recorded, and the natural cause of earthquakes was little understood. Those who did look for natural causes often reached conclusions that seem fanciful today; one popular theory was that earthquakes were caused by air rushing out of caverns deep in the Earth's interior.”

https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq1/history.html

[1] Nouns

First Declension

aura, -ae [1/f]: breeze, air

procella, -ae [1/f]: storm, tempest, gale, hurricane

Note: the noun tempestās, -tātis [3/f] can refer to storms, gales and bad weather, but also to good weather, season, period of time; context will determine its meaning

ruīna, -ae [1/f]: ruin, collapse, destruction; “falls of houses”

terra, -ae [1/f]: earth, land

Second Declension

gȳrus, -ī [2/m]: circle, ring, circuit

ventus, -ī [2/m]: wind

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%201st%20%2F%202nd

Third Declension

arbor, -ōris [3/f]: tree

labēs, -is [3/f]: collapse, downfall, ruin

turbō, -inis [3/m]: whirlwind

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%203rd

āēr, āeris [3 m/f]: air, a Greek-type noun which can have alternative case endings

Link: Greek-type nouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/07/200824-follow-up-food-and-drink-12.html

Fourth Declension

mōtus, -ūs [4/m]: movement, motion; motus, -ūs [4/m] terrae: (literally: movement of  the earth) earthquake

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%204th

[2] Verbs

First Conjugation

excitō, excitāre [1]: rouse, excite, cause

flō, flāre [1]: blow

spīrō, spīrāre [1]: breathe, blow

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/conjugations%3A%201st

Third Conjugation

agō, agere [3]: drive, set in motion; here the verb is used with the reflexive pronoun sē (himself / herself / itself)

sternō, sternere [3]: lay low, overthrow

Third iō Conjugation

faciō, facere [3]: make, cause, bring about

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/conjugations%3A%203rd%20%26%203-io

[3]

Aura spīrat lēniter │ A breeze blows gently

Ventus flat validē │ The wind blows strongly

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/adverbs

27.06.26: Level 1 (review); weather (3) vocabulary; nouns [iii] list and links

[i] 1^st / 2^nd declension nouns

nebula, -ae [1/f]: fog

pluvia, -ae [1/f]: rain

procella, -ae [1/f]: storm

stīria, -ae [1/f]: icicle

ventus, -ī [2/m]: wind

caelum, -ī [2/n]: sky

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/150424-weather-vocabulary-1.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%201st%20%2F%202nd

[ii] 3^rd declension nouns

imber, imbris [3/m]: rain shower

rōs, rōris [3/m]: dew

sōl, sōlis [3/m]: sun

turbō, turbinis [3/m]: whirlwind

grandō, grandinis [3/f]: hail

nix, nivis [3/f]: snow

nūbēs, nūbis [3/f]: cloud

tempestās, tempestātis [3/f]: storm; weather

fulgur, fulguris [3/n]: lightning

fulmen, fulminis [3/n]: lightning

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/150424-weather-vocabulary-2.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%203rd

[iii] 4^th declension nouns

arcus, -ūs [4/m] pluvius: rainbow

tonitrus, -ūs [4/m]: thunder

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%204th

[iv] 5^th declension nouns

glaciēs, -ēī [5/f]: ice

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%205th

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/160424-weather-vocabulary-3-fifth-and.html

27.06.26: Level 1 (review); weather (2) vocabulary; nouns [ii]

Label the image with the vocabulary listed; some images have more than one word:

caelum

sōl

rōs

arcus pluvius

fulgur; fulmen; tonitrus

nix

glaciēs

imber; pluvia

nebula

nūbēs

procella; tempestās

stīria

grandō

turbō

ventus

27.06.26: Level 1 (review); weather (1) vocabulary; nouns [i]

Match the English nouns below with the Latin in the word cloud:

cloud

dew

fog

hail

ice

icicle

lightning (2 nouns)

rain

rain shower

rainbow

sky

snow

storm

sun

thunder

weather

whirlwind

wind

26.06.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [60] dependent uses [5] verbs of fearing (2) practice [i]

[1] Complete the Latin translations with one clause from [A] and one from [B]. Remember that nē indicates what is feared may happen, and ut indicates what is feared may not happen.

[i] We fear that the enemies may arrive soon.

[ii] They fear that the reinforcements may not arrive soon.

[iii] He is afraid that the slaves may not be captured.

[iv] You (pl.) fear that the city may be captured.

[v] I’m afraid I may not be able to help you.

[vi] Are you afraid that I may not be willing to help you?

[A]

timētis

timet

timēsne

timeō

timent

timēmus

[B]

ut tē adiuvāre possim

ut servī capiantur

ut auxilia mox adveniant

nē urbs capiātur

nē tē adiuvāre nōlim

nē hostēs mox adveniant

[2] Complete the sentences with the words listed below. All of them require either nē (fearing that something may happen) or ut (fearing that something may not happen):

[i] He fears that the republic may perish. │ Timet _____ rēs pūblica __________.

[ii] They fear that that leader may not protect the city. │ Timent  _____ ille princeps urbem __________.

[iii] I fear that my words may not be understood. │ Vereor _____ verba mea __________.

[iv] The farmer fears that the horse has already been sold. │  Agricola metuit _____ equus iam __________.

[v] We fear that, without help, we may be conquered. │ Metuimus _____ sine auxiliō __________.

[vi] We fear that, without help, we may not conquer the enemy. │ Metuimus _____ sine auxiliō hostēs __________.

for all sentences: either ut or nē

intellegantur; pereat; servet; vēnditus sit; vincāmus; vincāmur

____________________

[1]

[i] Timēmus nē hostēs mox adveniant.

[ii] Timent ut auxilia mox adveniant.

[iii] Timet ut servī capiantur.

[iv] Timētis nē urbs capiātur.

[v] Timeō ut tē adiuvāre possim.

[vi] Timēsne nē tē adiuvāre nōlim?

[2]

[i] Timet nē rēs pūblica pereat.

[ii] Timent ut ille princeps urbem servet.

[iii] Vereor ut verba mea intellegantur.

[iv] Agricola metuit nē equus iam vēnditus sit.

[v] Metuimus nē sine auxiliō vincāmur.

[vi] Metuimus ut sine auxiliō hostēs vincāmus.