09.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [67] reading the subjunctive … and singing it

Fluency in any verb form comes with reading until you reach the point where you are not continually pausing to work out what is meant. When reading the original authors, you can find several subjunctives in the same sentence each performing different functions and using different tenses.

[1]

Possum scīre … ¦ (1) cuius sīs aut quid vēnerīs? (Plautus) │ Can I know … (1) whose you are (who you belong to) or (2) why you have come?

[2] From Cicero:

[i]

Tū (1) velim … tua cōnsilia ad mē (2) scrībās, ¦ (3) ut sciam, ¦ (4) quid agās, …  maximē ¦ (4) quandō Rōmae futūrus sīs (Cicero)

(1) I would like (2) you to write to me … about your plans, (3) so that I know ¦ (4) what you are doing, … especially (4) when you’re going to be in Rome.

(1) velim: I would like i.e. not a command, but a polite wish

(2) What Cicero would like the reader to do: scribās

(3) For what purpose? …ut sciam … │ …so that I (may) know …

(4) Indirect questions:

…quid agās …; …quandō Rōmae futūrus sīs

Similarly:

[ii]

Quid dē hīs cōgitēs … scīre velim (Cicero) │ I would like to know ¦ what you think about these things.

[iii]

Quandō tē proficīscī istinc pūtēs, fac ut sciam (Cicero) │ Let me know [ = See to it that I may know] ¦ when you’re thinking about setting out from there.

[iv]

Ac diem, ¦ quō Rōmā sīs exitūrus, ¦ cūrā ut sciam (Cicero) │ And  don’t forget to say [ = Take care that I know] the day ¦ on which you’re going to leave Rome.

[v]

Quid tibi pollicitus sit ¦ velim ¦ ad mē scrībās (Cicero) │I should like ¦ you to write to me ¦ what he has promised you.

Singing the subjunctive

And if you’re drowning your sorrows as a result of the subjunctive, then join the Mediaeval drunks, and sing along with them – because they know how to use it!

Excerpt from In Tabernā Quandō Sumus

Five subjunctives for the price of an ale …

In tabernā quandō sumus │ When we are in the tavern

Nōn cūrāmus ¦ quid sit humus │ We don’t care ¦ (literally) what the earth may be [i.e. what lies in the ground / what fate (death) awaits]

Sed ad lūdum properāmus │ But we hurry to the game (gambling)

Cui semper īnsūdāmus │ Over which we always sweat

Quid agātur in tabernā  │ (literally) What is being done = What is happening / going on in the tavern

Ubi nummus est pincerna │ Where a coin is the wine-waiter [i.e. if you have the money, the wine will be poured]

Hoc est opus ¦ ut qu(a)erātur │ (literally) This is the task ¦ that is to be investigated  = This is what needs to be investigated [i.e. the subjunctive expresses purpose]

Sed quid loquar, ¦ audiātur │ But what I am saying ¦ let / may it be heard.

09.07.26: Level 3+; topic: weather & natural phenomena [2] Tacitus

In these extracts, natural phenomena is associated with religious judgement.

[i] Here Tacitus does not merely imply but states directly that the gods disapprove:

Tot facinoribus foedum annum etiam dī tempestātibus et morbīs īnsignīvēre. vastāta Campānia turbine ventōrum, quī vīllās arbusta frūgēs passim disiēcit pertulitque violentiam ad vīcīnā urbī (Tacitus: Annales)

Upon this year, disgraced by so many shameful deeds, the gods also imposed their mark through violent storms and epidemics. Campania was laid waste by a whirlwind, which wrecked the farms, the fruit trees, and the crops far and wide and carried its violence to the vicinity of the capital.

morbus, -ī [2/n]: disease

tempestās, tempestātis [3/f]: storm

turbō, turbinis [3/m]: whirlwind

ventus, -ī [2/m]: wind

[1] the year is permanently contaminated:

Tot facinoribus ¦ foedum annum │ (this) year disgraced ¦ by so many evil deeds

foedum: implies enduring moral corruption

This is confirmed by the gods:

dī … īnsignīvēre │ the gods … marked; īnsigniō, -īre [4]: mark; distinguish i.e. the year was so bad that the gods singled it out for their disapproval

īnsignīvēre: contracted verb form = īnsignīvērunt

[2] use of nouns and verbs to convey the violence and wide-ranging impact of the events:

vastāta Campānia │ Campania (was) laid waste

Homes and livelihoods are destroyed, emphasised by the list of three nouns:

quī (1) vīllās (2) arbusta (3) frūgēs passim disiēcit │ which wrecked (1) farms, (2) fruit trees, (3) crops far and wide

[3] personification:

pertulitque violentiam │ and it carried the violence …

That violence reaches all the way to the outskirts of Rome itself:

ad vīcīnā urbī │ to the vicinity of the capital.

[ii] similar phenomena warn of things that are going to happen

praeter multiplicīs rērum hūmānārum cāsūs caelō terrāque prōdigia et fulminum monitūs et futūrōrum praesāgia, laeta trīstia, ambigua manifēsta (Tacitus: Historiae)

Apart from these manifold disasters to mankind there were portents in the sky and on the earth, warnings of thunderbolts and premonitions of things to come, joyful and grim, ambiguous and clear

caelum, -ī [2/n]: sky

casus, -ūs [4/m]: misfortune; disaster

terra, -ae [1/f]: land

fulmen, fulminis [3/n]: lightning; thunderbolt

multiplex, multiplicis: manifold; numerous

monitus, -ūs [4/m]: warning

praesāgium, -ī [2/n]: premonition

prōdigium, -ī [2/n]: omen; portent

Notes on both passages:

Tacitus’ writing is compact to maintain a dramatic narrative flow and to convey ideas as succinctly and / or as intensely as possible.

(a) Rapid listing of words to express

[i] the entirety of destruction

vīllās arbusta frūgēs

[ii] wide-ranging, contradictory and confusing events; note also the repetition of the adjective endings to combine the ideas

laeta trīstia, ambigua manifēsta

(b) Three near synonyms:

prōdigia; monitūs; praesāgia

(c) omission of ‘est’ in the passive construction:

vastāta Campānia │ Campania (was) laid waste

(d) omission of any verb to introduce a section of the narrative:

praeter multiplicīs rērum hūmānārum cāsūs ¦ caelō terrāque prōdigia

Apart from these manifold disasters to mankind [there were] portents in the sky and on the earth

09.07.26: Level 3+; weather & natural phenomena [1] Tacitus

Tacitus presents weather conditions and other phenomena with differing purposes. Here we will look at a a physical and neutral description of the weather in Britannia.

Caelum crēbrīs imbribus ac nebulīs foedum; asperitās frīgōrum abest. Diērum spatia ultrā nostrī orbis mēnsūram; nox clāra et extrēmā Britanniae parte brevis, ut fīnem atque initium lūcis exiguō discrīmine internōscās. Quod sī nūbēs nōn officiant, aspicī per noctem sōlis fulgōrem, nec occīdere et exurgere, sed trānsīre adfirmant. (Tacitus: Agricola)

The weather is foul, with dense cloud and rain; but severity of cold is unknown [literally: absent]. The days exceed in length those of our part of the world, the night is bright, and in the farthest part of Britain so short that you can scarcely tell the end of daylight from its beginning. So, they say, if no clouds intervene, the sun’s brightness is visible all night, not setting and rising but simply transiting.

asperitās, asperitātis [3/f]: severity; harshness

caelum, -ī [2/n]: weather; sky

clārus, -a, -um: clear

exsurgō, exsurgere [3]: rise up

foedus, -a, -um: foul

frīgor, frīgōris [3/n]: cold

fulgor, fulgōris [3/m]: [i] (here) brightness; gleam [ii] lightning

imber, imbris [3/m]: rain

lūx, lūcis [3/f]: light; daylight (and can also be used to refer to ‘dawn’)

nebula, -ae [1/f]: cloud

nox, noctis [3/f]: night; per noctem: all night / throughout the night

nūbēs, nūbis [3/f]: cloud

occidō, occidere [3]: go down; set (of the sun); note: not occīdō, occīdere [3] (with long /ī/) which means ‘kill’

sōl, -is [3/m]: sun

08.07.26: Level 2 (review); weather (3) the weather in 1750 [2]

This time, the text no longer uses the 18^th century letter forms and is written with macrons:

A1750 Māius habet diēs XXXI

1 nocte frigēscit, et ventōsum

2 minātur tempestātem

3 frīgida nox, deinde nūbilum

4 fulgura, ac temperāta serēnitās

5 ventōsum, cum serēnitāte

6 dūrat

7 nox frīgida, dē diē calēscit

8 serēnitās

9 colliguntur nūbēs prō plūviā

10 serēnat, subsequā nocte frigēscit

11 pruīnōsum, dē diē calēscit

12 aliquantum nūbilum

13 calida serēnitās

14 minātur impetuōsōs ventōs et imbrēs

15 serēnat et calēscit

16 nox frīgidula, plūviōsum

17 aura turbida

18 ventōsum, diēs calēscit

19 inamoena aura et frīgida

20 continuat

21 aura frīgidior, et plūviōsa

22 aliquantum obnūbilat

23 aura tepēscit

24 diēs obscūra et plūviōsa

25 cōpiōsa plūvia

26 frīgidula nox cum ventō moderātō

27 imbrēs, procellōsumque ventum minantur

28 ventōsum, et minantur tonitrua

29 frīgida nox, perīculum grandinis

30 vult etiam tonāre

31 serēnat, simul aestuat

[A] Find the Latin:

[1] verbs

[i] (it’s) getting cold

[ii] (it’s) getting warm

[iii] (it’s) getting hot

[iv] it is hot (and sultry)

[v] it’s fine weather

[vi] it’s covered with clouds (or fog)

[vii] clouds are gathering [literally: clouds are being gathered together]

[2] adjectives

[i] cold

[ii] chilly

[iii] colder

[iv] frosty

[v] cloudy

[vi] rainy

[vii] stormy

[viii] windy

[3] nouns

[i] fine weather

[ii] clouds

[iii] hail

[iv] rain showers

[v] rain

[vi] storm

[B] Comprehension

There are several references to wind, but on what date is a light (moderate) wind mentioned?

[i] On what date are rainshowers, stormy weather and wind mentioned together?

[ii] Which date specifically mentions night and day?

[iii] On which date is there a lot of (a copious amount of) rain?

[iv] Which dates refer to cold nights?

[v] Which dates refer to chilly nights?

[vi] How is the day described on the 24^th?

[vii] Which two dates refer to thunder?

[viii] On which two dates does the weather continue to be the same as the day before?

[ix] How does the weather change on the 11th?

[x] Is it very cloudy on the 12th? Give the reason for your answer.

[xi]  Are there light winds on the 14th? Give the reason for your answer.

[xii] How does the air change on the 23rd?

[xiii] What is there a danger (perīculum) of on the 29th?

____________________

[1]

[i] frigēscit

[ii] tepēscit

[iii] calēscit

[iv] aestuat

[v] serēnat

[vi] obnūbilat

[vii] colliguntur nūbēs

[2]

[i] frīgida

[ii] frīgidula

[iii] frīgidior

[iv] pruīnōsum

[v] nūbilum

[vi] plūviōsa

[vii] procellōsum

[viii] ventōsum

[3]

[i] serēnitās

[ii] nūbēs

[iii] grandinis

[iv] imbrēs

[v] plūvia

[vi] tempestātem

[B]

[i] 27 │ imbrēs, procellōsumque ventum

[ii] 7 │ nox frīgida, dē diē calēscit

[iii] 25 │ cōpiōsa plūvia

[iv] 3 │ frīgida nox; 7 │ nox frīgida; 10 │ subsequā nocte frigēscit,  29 │ frīgida nox

[v] 16 │nox frīgidula; 26 │ frīgidula nox

[vi] dark; rainy │ diēs obscūra et plūviōsa

[vii] 28│ minantur tonitrua; 30 │ vult etiam tonāre

[viii] 6 │ dūrat; 20 │ continuat

[ix] heats up │ calēscit

[x] no; aliquantum nūbilum: somewhat cloudy

[xi] no; impetuōsōs ventōs: violent winds

[xii] gets warmer │ tepēscit

[xiii] hail; perīculum grandinis

07.07.26: Level 1 (review); weather (11); Traupman [ii] listening; text, translation and notes

Puer Rōmānus: Est frīgidum hodiē. │ Roman Boy: It’s cold today.

Puella Helvētia: Frīgidumne? Quōmodo id dīcere potes? │ Swiss Girl: Cold? How can you say that?

Puer: Quia ego algeō. │ Boy: Because I feel cold.

Puella: At sōl lūcet et ventulus mītis flat. Prōrsus, est diēs bellus et tepidus. │ Girl: But the sun is shining and a gentle breeze is blowing. All in all, it is a nice warm day.

Puer: Haec dīcis, quia tempestās in Helvētiā semper frīgida est. Nihil habēs in Ālpibus praeter nivem et glaciem. │ Boy: You say that because the weather is always cold in Switzerland. You have nothing in the Alps but snow and ice.

Puella: Parum vērum est! Estō; hiemēs in Ālpibus sunt longae. Sed tempestās ibi aestāte est bellissima. │ Girl: That’s not quite true. Granted, the winters are long in the Alps. But the weather there in summer is very nice.

Puer: Hīc hiems est plūvia, et diēs aestāte sunt calidissimī. │ Boy: Here the winter is rainy and the days in summer are very hot.

Puella: Sed hīc Rōmae neque grandinat neque ningit. Eāmus forās lūsum. Mox tū nōn iam algēbis. │ Girl: But here in Rome it neither hails nor snows. Let’s go play outside. Soon you will no longer be cold.

Puer: Vēra dīcis. Iam disserēnat. │ Boy: You’re right. The weather is already clearing up.

Vocabulary and notes

[1]

aestās, aestātis [3/f]: summer

• aestāte: in summer

algeō, algēre [2]: be cold; feel cold

bellus, -a, -um [1/2]: beautiful; pretty

diēs, diēī [5/m]: day

hiems, hiemis [3/f]: winter

mītis, mīte [3]: gentle; mild

ventulus, ventulī [2/m]: a little wind; breeze

[2] impersonal constructions with adjectives

frīgidum est: it’s cold

[3]

bellissimus, -a, -um: very beautiful

calidissimus, -a, -um: very hot

-issimus, -a, -um forms the superlative of an adjective i.e. the equivalent of English “the most beautiful” or “the hottest”; in Latin, the superlative form may also, depending upon context, translate as very + the adjective

[4]

estō: granted; very well; let it be

forās: outside; outdoors

neque … neque …: neither … nor …

nihil: nothing

parum vērum est: that is not quite true

praeter (+ acc.): except; besides

A more advanced construction for this level, but simply take note of it at this stage:

eāmus: let us go

eāmus … lūsum: let us go … to play

See also:

Level 1: the sky

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/220125-level-1-topic-school-26-sky-1.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/240125-level-1-topic-school-27-sky-2.html

07.07.26: Level 1 (review); weather (10); Traupman [i] listening

Listen to the text without looking at the transcript and answer the questions:

algeō, -ēre [2]: be / feel cold

[i] How does the boy describe the weather today? (1)

[ii] Why does he say that? (1)

[iii] How does the girl describe the weather today? (4)

[iv] What does the boy think the weather in Switzerland is like? (3)

[v] According to the girl:

(a) What are winters like in the Alps? (1)

(b) What is the weather like in summer? (1)

[vi] According to the boy, what is the weather like in Rome:

(a) in winter? (1)

(b) in summer? (1)

[vii] According to the girl, which two weather features do not happen in Rome? (2)

[viii] The girl suggests they go outside to play. Why? (1)

[ix] Why does the boy agree? (1)

____________________

Puer Rōmānus: Est frīgidum hodiē.

Puella Helvētia: Frīgidumne? Quōmodo id dīcere potes?

Puer: Quia ego algeō.

Puella: At sōl lūcet et ventulus mītis flat. Prōrsus, est diēs bellus et tepidus.

Puer: Haec dīcis, quia tempestās in Helvētiā semper frīgida est. Nihil habēs in Ālpibus praeter nivem et glaciem.

Puella: Parum vērum est! Estō; hiemēs in Ālpibus sunt longae. Sed tempestās ibi aestāte est bellissima.

Puer: Hīc hiems est plūvia, et diēs aestāte sunt calidissimī.

Puella: Sed hīc Rōmae neque grandinat neque ningit. Eāmus forās lūsum. Mox tū nōn iam algēbis.

Puer: Vēra dīcis. Iam disserēnat.

____________________

[i] cold

[ii] feels cold

[iii] sun shining (1); gentle breeze blowing (1); beautiful; (1) warm (1)

[iv] always cold (1); snow (1); ice (1)

[v] (a) long; (b) very beautiful

[vi] (a) rainy; (b) very hot

[vii] no hail (1); no snow (1)

[viii] soon won’t feel cold

[ix] weather clearing up

06.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [66] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (4); tense sequences (iii) practice

Complete the Latin with the words listed below.

[1] Primary Sequence

[i] The boys ask each other [literally: among themselves] what they should do.

Puerī __________ inter sē __________ __________.

[ii] The old man does not know where he lives.

Senex __________ __________ __________.

[iii] We want to find out who has arrived.

__________ volumus __________ __________.

[iv] He asks the boy on what day he found the gold.

Ā puerō __________ __________ diē aurum __________.

[v] I will ask him when he will / is going to / intends to set out.

Eum __________ __________ __________.

[vi] I do not know how long he is going to stay in the countryside.

__________ __________ rūrī __________.

[vii] Do you know how much money was / has been found?

__________ __________ pecūnia __________?

[viii] We know why the prisoners were / have been killed.

__________ __________  captīvī  __________.

cognōscere; nesciō; nescit; quaerit; rogābō; rogant; scīmus; scīsne

cūr; quamdiū; quandō; quanta; quid; quis; quō; ubi

advēnerit; faciant; habitet; interfectī sint; invēnerit; inventa sit; mānsurus sit; profectūrus sit

[2] Historic Sequence

[i] I asked the boys what they were doing in the field.

Puerōs __________ __________ in agrō __________.

[ii] I understood what kind of man he was.

__________ __________ vir __________.

[iii] All the citizens knew why the consul had come to Rome.

Omnēs cīvēs __________ __________ cōnsul Rōmam __________.

[iv] They asked the commander how many soldiers he had led into battle.

Imperātōrem __________ __________ mīlitēs in proelium __________.

[v] The boys were asking each other what they would / were going to do.

Puerī inter sē __________ __________  __________.

[vi] We were asking the king who would / was going to kill the enemies.

Ā rēge __________ __________  inimīcōs __________.

[vii] The slave told his master how much money had been stolen.

Servus dominō __________ __________  pecūnia __________.

[viii] We did not know where the gold had been hidden.

__________ __________  aurum __________.

dīxit; intellēxī; nesciēbāmus; quaerēbāmus; rogābant; rogāvērunt; rogāvī; sciēbant

cūr; quālis; quanta; quid; quid; quis; quot; ubi

ablāta esset; advēnisset; cēlātum esset; dūxisset; esset; facerent; factūrī essent; interfectūrus esset

____________________

[1]

[i] Puerī rogant inter sē quid faciant.

[ii] Senex nescit ubi habitet.

[iii] Cognōscere volumus quis advēnerit.

[iv] Ā puerō quaerit quō diē aurum invēnerit.

[v] Eum rogābō quandō profectūrus sit.

[vi] Nesciō quamdiū rūrī mānsūrus sit.

[vii] Scīsne quanta pecūnia inventa sit?

[viii] Scīmus cūr captīvī interfectī sint.

[2]

[i] Puerōs rogāvī quid in agrō facerent.

[ii] Intellēxī quālis vir esset.

[iii] Omnēs cīvēs sciēbant cūr cōnsul Rōmam advēnisset.

[iv] Imperātōrem rogāvērunt quot mīlitēs in proelium dūxisset.

[v] Puerī inter sē rogābant quid factūrī essent.

[vi] Ā rēge quaerēbāmus quis inimīcōs interfectūrus esset.

[vii] Servus dominō dīxit quanta pecūnia ablāta esset.

[viii] Nesciēbāmus ubi aurum cēlātum esset.

06.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [65] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (3); tense sequences (ii) primary and historic

Compare [1] the primary sequence with [2] the historic sequence

Note that English and Latin operate in a similar way, except that the indirect question in Latin uses the subjunctive.

[1] Primary Sequence (Image part #1):

[i] The present subjunctive is used when the action is happening at the time of the main verb.

I ask him ¦ what he is doing. │ Eum rogō ¦ quid faciat.

I will ask him ¦ what he is doing. │ Eum rogābō ¦ quid faciat.

I have asked him ¦ what he is doing. │ Eum rogāvī ¦ quid faciat.

Ask him ¦ what he is doing. │ Rogā eum ¦ quid faciat.

[ii] The perfect subjunctive refers to an action that happened / has happened before the time of the main verb.

I will ask him ¦ what he did / has done. │ Eum rogābō ¦ quid fēcerit.

• Ego illud sciō ¦ quam doluerit ¦ cordī meō (Plautus) │ I know one thing – how (much) it has grieved my heart.
• Ex mē quaeris ¦ quid dēlīquerīs (Plautus) │ And you ask from me ¦ what you have done wrong.
• Possum scīre … quid vēnerīs? (Plautus) │ Can I know … ¦ why you have come?

Look out for passive and deponent forms:

• Nunc iam summātim expōnam ¦ quibus crīminibus Oppianicus damnātus sit (Cicero) │ Now I shall briefly set out ¦ on what charges Oppianicus was convicted.
• Sed lege indicium et vidē ¦ quem ad modum nōminātus sit (Cicero) │ But read the evidence and see ¦ in what manner he was named.
• 'Nōn indicās' inquit 'quid locūtus sīs.' (Quintilian) │ ‘You do not make known,” he said “What you have said.’

[iii] the construction with the future participle + the subjunctive of esse is used when the action is going to / will happen after the time of the main verb

I ask him ¦ what he is going to / will do. │ Eum rogō ¦ quid factūrus sit.

• Hinc intellegimus, quālis futūrus sīs (Scrīptōrēs Historiae Augustae) │ From this we understand ¦ what kind of man you will be.

[2] Historic Sequence (Image part #2):

[i] The imperfect subjunctive is used when the action was happening at the time of the main verb.

I asked him ¦ what he was doing. │ Eum rogāvī ¦ quid faceret.

• Interrogāvit ¦ quid esset (Seneca the Elder) │ He asked ¦ what it was.
• Interrogāvitque, ¦ quis esset (Vitruvius) │ And he asked ¦ who he was.
• Eum interrogāvit ¦ quid significāret verbum (Gellius) │ He asked him ¦ what the word meant.

[ii] The pluperfect subjunctive is used when the action had already happened before the time of the main verb. Focus, in particular, on the English use of had to emphasise that an action was already completed.

I asked him ¦ what he had done. │ Eum rogāvī ¦ quid fēcisset.

• Interrogāvit, ¦ quis id lignum ita composuisset (Gellius)│ He asked ¦ who had arranged that wood like that.
• Interrogāvit eum pater ¦ ā quō vulnerātus esset (Quintilian) │ The father asked him ¦ by whom he had been injured.

Look out for passive and deponent forms:

• Interrogāvit eum pater ¦ ā quō vulnerātus esset (Quintilian) │ The father asked him ¦ by whom he had been injured.
• At ille etiam proximus torō sēdit, ¦ quō diē quā hōrā nāta esset ¦ interrogāvit (Cicero) │ But he also sat down close to the bed and asked ¦ on what day and at what hour she had been born.

[iii] the construction with the future participle + the imperfect subjunctive of esse is used when the action would  / was going to happen after the time of the main verb

I asked him ¦ what he would do. │ Eum rogāvī ¦ quid factūrus esset.

• Exspectābant hominēs ¦ quidnam āctūrus esset (Cicero) │ People were waiting (to see) ¦ what he intended to do / would do.
• Metellus Pius in Hispāniā interrogātus, ¦ quid posterā diē factūrus esset, ¦ "tunicam meam..." inquit, "combūrerem." (Frontinus) │ Metellus Pius, having been questioned in Spain ¦ about what he would do the next day, said “I would burn … my tunic.’

Bear the image in mind, because it clearly shows how English translates each of the different subjunctive uses. Translators may not always maintain this pattern, but at this stage it is better to keep the translations of each use distinct. You need to take time - and plenty of reading - to "absorb" these constructions. Go slowly and - unlike Metellus Pius - don't burn your tunic!

06.07.26: Level 3(+) (review); weather (5); hot and cold running English

Words associated with the weather very well illustrate how English has used derivatives to expand its vocabulary.

[1] English words referring to, for example, agriculture, domestic life and weather conditions are firmly rooted in Germanic.

Old English: hāt; Modern English: hot; Modern Dutch: heet

OE: ċeald; ME: cold; MD: koud

OE: cōl; ME: cool; MD: koel

OE: forst; ME: frost; MGmn: Frost

OE: īs; ME: ice; MD: ijs

OE: reġn; ME: rain; MD: regen

OE: reġnboga; ME: rainbow; MD: regenboog

OE: snāw; ME: snow; MD: sneeuw

OE: storm; ME: storm; MD: storm

OE: sunne; ME: sun; MD: zon

OE: wearm; ME: warm; MD: warm

OE: wind; ME: wind; MD: wind

After the Norman Conquest of 1066 a large number of Old / Middle French words of Latin origin were imported to England,  enhancing the language with words that are largely not synonyms but are connected to the original Latin meaning. English vocabulary was not always displaced but sat alongside Latin derivatives which tend to be abstract, technical, or elevated in register. This has added considerable nuance to English.

hot │ calorie < La: calor, -ōris [3/m]

cold │ frigid (of a person’s emotion); refrigerator; fridge* < La: frīgidus, -a, -um

*possibly from the French product name Frigidaire; compare Hoover for vacuum cleaner

frost │ pruinose (frosted in appearance) < La: pruīna, -ae [1/f]

ice │ glacial; glacier < La: glaciēs, -ēī [5/f]

rain │ pluviometer < La: pluvia, -ae [1/f] or pluvius, -a, -um

snow │ niveous (resembling snow) < La: nix, nivis [3/f]

storm │ tempestuous < La: tempestās, -tātis [3/f]

sun │ solar < La: sōl, -is [3/m]

warm │ tepid < La: tepidus, -a, -um

wind │ ventilate < La: ventilō, -āre [1]: expose to a draught

A nice example where the Latin word with the same original meaning is reassigned to mean something different:

rainbow │ iris < La: (Late) īris, -idis

[2]

OE: birnende; ME: burning │ ardent < La: ārdeō, -ēre [2]; La: fervent < ferveō, -ēre [2]

What is interesting, and possibly annoying to non-native speakers of English, is the way in which such words overlap in both literal and figurative usage, one at times preferable to another. You can say a burning building or a burning desire, but you cannot say an ardent building!

a burning building

a burning desire

fervent heat

fervent activity

ardent prayers

[3] Displacement: sometimes a word is displaced because another word takes over part of its meaning — or because history intervenes (we have Vikings and Normans to thank for that!).

OE: heofan

[i] sky

[ii] heaven

One meaning displaced by Old Norse: ský, but retaining heofan as “heaven”.

And then the Normans come:

celestial < La: caelestis, -e < caelum, -ī [2/n]

This sits alongside the Old English heofonlīċ: heavenly.

Are celestial and heavenly simply useful synonyms for essays? Not quite.

Heavenly (Germanic) is warmer and more emotional. It can mean divine, blissful, or simply extremely pleasant: heavenly music, a heavenly view, a heavenly taste.

Celestial (Latin-derived) is cooler and more elevated. It often belongs to astronomy or formal description: celestial bodies, celestial sphere, celestial navigation.

They overlap in meaning, but they differ in tone and register. English has not merely accumulated synonyms — it has layered them. And that layering is part of what makes the English language both expressive – and occasionally exasperating.

05.07.26: Level 2 (review); weather (3) the weather in 1750 [1]

This meteorological report from 1750 contains a wide range of common vocabulary used to describe the weather. The text is reproduced as it was originally written, and there are a few features to note which were used from the Middle Ages and remain evident in this mid-18^th century text:

[1] the long /s/ - ſ - that is almost indistinguishable from /f/; it may be written with no stroke through it - ſ - or with a small horizontal line attached to the left:  ſ

frigeſcit: frigescit

[2] diacritics: these are marks placed above or below letters (sometimes beside letters) to indicate, for example, how a letter is pronounced. If you have studied French then you will already be familiar with ‘accents’ e.g. é, ç, or, if you know German then you will recognise the umlaut accent ü.

Classical Latin writing did not use diacritics. The macron e.g. ā, ē is used in textbooks and edited literary works to mark the presence of a long vowel.

In Mediaeval and later Latin texts, what looks like a macron (ū) or, often like a Spanish tilde (ũ) indicates an abbreviation. In this text, it indicates a following /m/ but it is by no means confined to that in other texts:

nubilũ = nubilum

[3] The use of a dot to mark abbreviations which we still do today:

impetuoſ. ventoſ = impetuosos ventos

procelloſumq. = procellosumque

[4] MAJUS = MAIUS

Classical Latin did not have the letter /j/; that letter was introduced into Latin texts to represent the equivalent of English /y/ + a vowel e.g Julius instead of Iulius. Most texts nowadays use /i/ in all positions.

[5] ampersand: the term for the abbreviation & [ = and] which is still in common use

The study of early calligraphy is an extensive topic. There are several posts that discuss many of the main features:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/Mediaeval%3A%20reading%20manuscripts

Begin by reading the manuscript as a way of reviewing basic vocabulary. New vocabulary is listed at the end of the text.

A1750 MAJUS habet Dies XXXI.

1 nocte frigeſcit, & ventoſ

2 minatur tempeſtatem

3 frigida nox, deinde nubilũ

4 fulgura, ac temperata ſerenitas

5 ventoſum, cum ſerenitate

6 dorat

7 nox frigida, de die caleſcit

8 ſerenitas

9 Colliguntur nubeſ pro pluvia

10 Serenat, ſubſequa nocte frigeſcit

11 Pruinoſum, de die caleſcit

12 Aliquantum nubilum

13 Calida ſerenitas

14 Minatur impetuoſ. ventoſ & imbreſ

15 Serenat & caleſcit

16 Nox frigidula, pluviſum

17 Aura turbida

18 Ventoſum, dies caleſcit

19 Inamoena aura & frigida

20 Continuat

21 Aura frigidior, & pluvioſa

22 Aliquantum obnubilat

23 Aura tepeſcit

24 Dies obſcura et pluvioſa

25 Copioſa pluvia

26 Frigidula nox cum vento moderato.

27 imbreſ, procelloſumq. ventũ minantur

28 Ventoſum, & minantur tonitrua

29 Frigida nox, periculum grandiniſ

30 Vult etiam tonare

31 Serenat, ſimul aeſtuat

____________________

aliquantum: somewhat; slightly

aura, -ae 1/f: air or breeze depending on context; synonyms for aura:

• āēr, āeris [3 m/f]: air
• spīritus, -ūs [4/m]: air; light breeze
• ventus, -ī [2/m]: wind

diēs can occur as both a masculine and feminine noun, hence diēs obscura et pluviosa

dorat = dūrat from dūrō, dūrāre [1]: last; continue

impetuōsus, -a, -um: violent

inamoenus, -a, -um: disagreeable

minātur: (it’s) threatening i.e. there is a threat of …

minantur: (they) are threatening i.e. there are threats of …

subsequus, -a, -um (Late Latin): following

subsequā nocte: on the following night

temperātus, -a, -um: moderate

04.07.26: Level 1 (review); weather (9) adjectives [iii] list and links

[1]  Temperature

cold

• frīgidulus, -a, -um: chilly
• frīgidus, -a, -um: cold
• gelidus, -a, -um: frozen; icy

warm / hot

• aestuōsus, -a, -um: hot; sultry; sweltering
• caldus, -a, -um / calidus, -a, -um: warm; hot
• tepidus, -a, -um: warm (mild)

[2] Moisture / Dryness

• āridus, -a, -um: dry; parched
• siccus, -a, -um: dry (not wet)
• ūmidus, -a, -um: humid; damp; wet

[3]  Sky Condition / Light / Visibility

clear / bright

• clārus, -a, -um: clear; bright
• serēnus, -a, -um: clear; fair; bright
• sūdus, -a, -um: bright; clear

dark / overcast

• nebulōsus, -a, -um: foggy; misty
• nūbilōsus, -a, -um: cloud-filled; heavily clouded
• nūbilus, -a, -um: cloudy
• obscūrus, -a, -um: dark

[4]  Precipitation & Frozen Conditions

• niveus, -a, -um / nivōsus, -a, -um: snowy
• pluviōsus, -a, -um: rainy
• pruīnōsus, -a, -um: frosty

[5]  Wind

• ventōsus, -a, -um: windy
• ventus secundus: favourable wind
• ventus adversus: opposing wind

[6] Storm / Severe Weather

• procellōsus, -a, -um: stormy; full of violent squalls
• tempestuōsus, -a, -um: stormy (general)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/180424-back-to-weather-related-nouns.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/180424-weather-adjectives-2.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/180424-weather-adjectives-4-hot-and-cold.html

Weather adjectives: -ōsus

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/180424-weather-adjectives-3-osus.html

04.07.26: Level 1 (review); weather (8) adjectives [ii]

Label the images. Some images refer to more than one adjective.

ventōsus, -a, -um

niveus, -a, -um

tempestuōsus, -a, -um

aestuōsus, -a, -um

nūbilus, -a, -um

pruīnōsus, -a, -um

pluviōsus, -a, -um

nebulōsus, -a, -um

procellōsus, -a, -um

nivōsus, -a, -um

nūbilōsus, -a, -um

04.07.26: Level 1 (review); weather (7) adjectives [i]

Match the English adjective below with the Latin in the word cloud:

chilly

cold

frozen; icy

warm (mild)

warm; hot (2 words)

dry (2 words)

humid

clear; bright (3 words)

favourable (of wind)

opposing (of wind)

dark

03.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [64] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (2); tense sequences (i) primary

[1]

(1) Nescīs [present indicative] ¦ (2) quid sentiam [present subjunctive] │ (1) You don’t know ¦ (2) what I am thinking. Translations may well retain the subjunctive idea: You don’t know ¦ what I may be thinking.

[2]

(1) Rogābis [future indicative] mē ¦ (2) ubi sit [present subjunctive] (Plautus) │ (1) You’ll ask me ¦ (2) where he is.

[3]

(2) Tū quid agās, (2) ubi sīs, (2) cuius modī istae rēs sint [all present subjunctive] ¦ (1) fac [imperative] mē quam dīligentissimē certiōrem (Cicero)

(1) Please let me know as carefully as possible …

(2) … what you’re doing …

(2) … where you are …

(2) … of what manner these affairs are [ = how matters are progressing / the progress of our affairs]

Examples from Plautus:

• Sceleste, at etiam ¦ quid velim, ¦ id tū mē rogās│ Rascal! And you even ask me that —what I want?
• Neque ille scit ¦ quid det, ¦ quid damnī ¦ faciat│ And he doesn’t know ¦ what he is giving, ¦ what harm he’s causing.
• Nec ¦ quid dicātis ¦ scīre nec mē ¦ cūr lūdātis ¦ possum│ And I can neither know [ = understand]  ¦ what you are saying , nor ¦ why you’re playing with me.
• Mē miseram, ¦ quid agam ¦ nesciō│ Poor me! I don’t know ¦ what I should do.
• Nōn edepol nunc ¦ ubi terrārum sim ¦ sciō│ Good gracious, I don't know ¦ where in the world I am.
• Dēmīror ¦ ubi nunc ambulet Messēniō │ I wonder ¦ where Messenio is walking now.

Indicative and subjunctive of the same verb in the same sentence:

• Gaudeō, etsī ¦ nīl sciō ¦ quod gaudeam│ I am rejoicing, although I haven't the least idea ¦ why I am / should be rejoicing.

This very brief exchange from Plautus shows the same verb as both a direct question in the indicative and an indirect question in the subjunctive.

Quid negōtīst? [ = Quid negotī est?] │ What’s the matter?

Quid negōtī sit ¦ rogās? │ You ask me ¦ what the matter is?

[4]

The Latin subjunctive has no future tense. When a specific future intention is meant, the subjunctive of esse + a future participle is used:

Certum nōn habeō, ¦ ubi sīs [present] aut ¦ ubi futūrus sīs [future] (Cicero) │ I do not know ¦ where you are or ¦ where you are going to be.

primary sequence; practice

Complete the Latin sentences with the words listed below.

[i]

(1) I don’t know (2) why (3) I should be friendly with him [ = why we should love him].

(1) __________ (2) __________ eum (3) __________ (Cicero)

[ii]

I want (1) to know (2) what (3) is happening [ = what is being done] here

Scīre (1) __________ (2) __________ hīc (3) __________.

[iii] Now I cannot conceive (1) where or (2) when (3) I shall see you.

Nunc, nec (1) __________ (2) nec __________ tē (3) __________, possum suspicārī (Cicero)

[iv] You must (1) bear in mind only this: (2) how many cohorts Caesar (3) has at hand against you.

Dēbēs illud sōlum (1) __________, (2) __________ in praesentiā cohortēs contrā tē (3) __________  Caesar (Cicero)

[v] (1) What portents (2) we read every day, (3) you will understand from this pamphlet.

Nōs (1) __________ mōnstra cotīdiē (2) __________, (3) __________ ex illō libellō (Cicero)

[vi] (1) I know both (2) whom (3) I should fear and (4) for what reason.

Ego (1) __________, et (2) __________  (3) __________ et (4) __________ (Cicero)

animadvertere; intellegēs; nesciō; sciō; scīre

cūr; quae; quam ob rem; quandō; quem; quid; quot; ubi

agātur; amēmus; habeat; legāmus; metuam; sim vīsūrus

____________________

[i] Nesciō, cūr illum amēmus.

[ii] Scīre volō quid hīc agātur.

[iii] Nunc, nec ubi nec quandō tē sim vīsūrus, possum suspicārī

[iv] Dēbēs illud sōlum animadvertere, quot in praesentiā cohortēs contrā tē habeat Caesar.

[v] Nōs quae mōnstra cotīdiē lēgāmus, intellegēs ex illō libellō.

[vi] Ego sciō, et quem metuam et quam ob rem.