07.05.26: topic; theatre [1] Comenius CXXX; a stage-play

A Stage-play │ Ludus Scēnicus

lūdus, -ī [2/m]: wide variety of meanings including [i] school (esp. primary school); [ii] game; sport; play; [iii] (pl.) lūdī: games; spectacles; stage-plays

scēnicus, -a, -um: pertaining to the stage; theatrical; dramatic

• scēna, -ae [1/f] or scaena, -ae [1/f]: stage; scene (Engl. behind the scenes)

[1]

In a play-house, 1. (which is trimmed with hangings, 2. and covered with curtains, 3.) comedies and tragedies are acted, wherein memorable things are represented; as here, the History of the Prodigal Son, 4. and his Father, 5. by whom he is entertain’d, being return’d home.

In theātrō, 1. (quod vestītur tapētibus, 2. & tegitur sīpariīs, 3.) cōmœdiæ vel tragœdiæ aguntur, quibus repræsentantur rēs memorābilēs ut hic, Historia dē Fīliō Prōdigō, 4. & Patre, 5. ipsīus, ā quō recipitur, domum redux.

[i] theātrum, -ī [2/n]: theatre

[ii] tapēs, tapētis [3/n] rug; carpet;  cloth (decorative) used for tapestries, wall-hangings etc.; also: tapēte, -is [3/n]

That these cloths were used both on floors and walls is reflected in:

• Fr. tapis; Ital. tappeto: carpet; rug
• Gmn. Tapete: wallpaper; Gmn. Teppich: rug, carpet; tapestry

[iii] sīparium, -ī [2/n]: (smaller) curtain in a theatre

• post sīparium: behind the scenes
• also: aulaeum, -ī [2/n]: canopy; covering; theatre curtain

“The curtain of a theatre; which, among the ancients, contrary to modern usage, was lowered from the ceiling to the floor at the beginning of a piece or act, and at the conclusion was drawn up (Smith, Dict. Antiq.)”

• aulaeum mittitur: the curtain is dropped / lowered at the beginning i.e. revealing the scene
• aulaeum tollitur: the curtain is drawn up / raised at the end of an act or scene i.e. hiding the scene

i.e. the terms are the opposite of how would we express the idea now

[iv] cōmoedia, -ae [1/f]: comedy;  tragoedia, -ae [1/f]: tragedy

[v] agō, -ere, ēgī, āctus [3]: (here) act

[vi] repraesentō, -āre [1]: display; exhibit; show

[vii]

theātrum vestītur ¦ tapētibus [ablative] │ the theatre is decked out ¦ in drapes / hangings

theātrum tegitur ¦ sīpariīs [ablative] │ the theatre is covered ¦ with curtains

[2]

The players act being in disguise; the fool, 6. maketh jests.

Āctōrēs (histriōnēs) agunt persōnātī; moriō, 6. dat jocōs.

[i]

āctor, āctōris [3/m]: actor; āctrīx, āctrīcis [3/f]: actress

The terms, apart from the specific meaning they have here, had a wider reference in Ancient Rome to the “doer”, the person who performs an action, hence the derivative agent; in Law, they could refer to the plaintiff, prosecutor or advocate.

[ii] histriō, histriōnis [3/m]: actor; player

This is a good example of how derivatives become more specific over time:

histriōnicus, -a, -um: pertaining to the theatre > Engl. histrionic: pertaining to the theatre; “my histrionic art” (Gilbert). However, it used far more commonly nowadays to refer to over-acting, being excessively and, most likely falsely emotional and attention-seeking; “I’ve had enough of your histrionics.”

[iii] personātus, -a, -um: masked; wearing a mask; pretended; fictitious; an assumed character > Engl. impersonate

[iv] mōriō, mōriōnis [3/m]: absolute fool < Anc. Gk. μωρός [mōrós]: slow; dull; the Engl. deriv. moron directly from Greek

[v] iocus, -ī [2 /m]: joke; jest; any form of amusement e.g. pastime or sport

[3]

The chief of the spectators [i.e. the leading spectators / foremost of the spectators] sit in the gallery, 7. the common sort stand on the ground, 8. and clap the hands, if anything please them.

Spectātōrum prīmāriī, sedent in orchēstrā, 7. plēbs stat in caveā, 8. & plaudit, sī quid arrīdet.

[i] spectātor, spectātōris [3/m]: spectator < spectō, -āre [1]: watch

We would use spectator referring mainly to watching, for example, sports. The term audience is derived from La. audiēns, audientis: hearing / listening; audientia, -ae [2/f]: a group of listeners

[ii] Terminology regarding parts of a theatre has changed over time; Comenius describes a theatre plan that reflects the period in which he lived. The image of the reconstructed Globe Theatre in London shows that the ‘commoners’ stood around the stage whereas the “great and the good” (and the ones with more money) occupied tiered seating in the gallery at higher levels.

(a) Rome: orchēstra, -ae [1/f]: area in front of the stage; nowadays, of course, ‘orchestra’ refers to the musicians who, in a theatre, play in an orchestra pit in front of the stage.

(b) cavea, -ae [1/f]: hollow; cavity; if you look at the shape of a Roman theatre, it is clear why that term was used because it referred to the seating area or to the entire theatre. Comenius narrows it down here to the unseated “hollow” area.

[iii]

plaudō, -ere, plausī, plausus [3]: strike, beat, clap; Engl. deriv. plaudit

• applaudō, -ere [3]: strike one thing against another e.g. hands; applaud
• plausus, -us [4/m]; applausus, -ūs [4/m] (Late): applause

[iv] arrideō, -ēre, arrīsī, arrīsus [3]: laugh / smile at; (here) be pleasing

07.05.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [27] [i]: reading and comprehension (1) lower level

Part 1

Carolus et Maria in Hispāniā sunt. Ibi nūllōs amīcōs habent neque linguam Hispāniae intellegunt. Multa et nōta loca huius terrae tamen vidēre cupiunt. Iam laetitiam magnam sentiunt quod terra est tam pulchra. Ubīque in arboribus sunt avēs. Caelum est semper clārum. Multa oppida parva inter collēs cēlantur. In hīs oppidīs Americānī manēre cupiunt quod ibi quiētem capere possunt. In oppidīs magnīs hominēs semper properant. Semper excitātī sunt.

These questions focus on basic understanding, concrete facts, and simple recall.

Read the wording of the question carefully, and look for any words or phrases in the question that are translations from the text itself and which ‘point’ to where the answer is. Questions asking ‘why’ will often be after a conjunction such as quod or quia (because).Bottom of Form

If marks are given in brackets that gives you an idea of how many separate points of information are needed.

[i] At the beginning of the text, what two facts are given about Carolus and Maria in Spain? (2)

no friends (1); do not understand the language (1)

[ii] What places do they want to see while traveling in Spain? (2)

[iii] How do Carolus and Maria feel about Spain as a land, and why? (2)

[iv] What animals are found in the trees in Spain? (1)

[v] What is the sky like in Spain? (2)

[vi] Where are many small towns in Spain located? (2)

(1) between / among (2) the hills

[vii] Why do Americans like to stay in small towns in Spain?

[viii] What are people in large towns in Spain always doing? (2)

____________________

[i] no friends (1); do not understand the language (1)

[ii] (1) Many (2) well-known places

[iii] Look out for the “little words” that add meaning: (1) very happy / great happiness (magnam laetitiam); (1) so beautiful (tam pulchra) (1)

[iv] birds

[v] (1) always (2) clear

[vi] (1) between / among (2) the hills

[vii] they can rest / find peace and quiet

[viii] (1) hurrying; (2) getting excited

06.05.26: Level 1 (review); daily routine

13.03.24: Daily routine [1]; the principal parts of verbs

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/406244435320164/

13.03.24: daily routine [2]

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/406322575312350/

05.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [33] dependent uses [1] purpose [ii] + present subjunctive (2) practice

When translating you can either:

(1) stay as close as possible to the Latin original e.g. ‘In order that / so that I (you etc.) may (not) do something, or:

(2) change the subordinate clause into an English infinitive e.g. (not) to …, which is a more natural rendering even if it does not reflect the original Latin grammar.

Ad urbem eō ut pānem emam. │ I’m going to town (1) in order that / so that I may buy bread; (2) … in order to buy bread.

(3) In almost all the sentences, the subject is the same in the principal and the subordinate clause.

I’m going to town ¦ so that I may buy bread = I’m going to town to buy bread.

However, in sentences 14 - 16, the subject changes. In English, an infinitive alone would not work. When the subject of the purpose clause in English is not the same as the subject of the main clause, English cannot use an infintive.

Hōs librōs ēmī ut sapientior fīās. │ I’ve bought these books so that you may become wiser.

Iste vir mentītur nē aurum inveniam. │ This man is lying so that I don’t find the gold.

1. Domum festīnō ut fūrēs expellam.
2. Ad Āsiam redeō ut hostēs vincam.
3. Trōiam currō ut captīvōs līberem.
4. Ad Graeciam īs ut discipulam aegram servēs.
5. Domum īs ut senem iuvēs.
6. Rōmam iter facis ut multōs librōs emās.
7. Fīlia ad Galliam venit ut Horātiam videat.
8. Ad urbem it nē patrem videat.
9. Tullia domum fugit ut Lēdam inveniat.
10. Labōrāmus ut dīvitēs fīāmus.
11. Ad Caesarem ībimus ut pācem rogēmus.
12. Ducentōs mittēmus ut hostium iter impediāmus.
13. Ut tūtus sīs, manē in urbe.
14. Nē ignāvum tē pūtēmus, fortiter pugnā!
15. Nē hostēs urbem capiant, tōtus exercitus proficīscitur.
16. Bellum gerimus nē urbem capiātis.

____________________

1. I hurry home to drive out the thieves.
2. I’m returning to Asia to defeat / so that I may defeat the enemy.
3. I run to Troy so that I may free the captives.
4. You go to Greece so that you may save the sick student.
5. You’re going home to help the old man.
6. You’re making the journey to Rome so that you may buy many books.
7. The daughter comes to Gaul so that she may see Horatia.
8. He goes to the city in order not to see (his) father.
9. Tullia flees home to find Leda.
10. We work so that we may become rich.
11. We will go to Caesar to ask for peace.
12. We will send 200 (men) so that we may hinder the enemy’s march.
13. Stay in the city so that you may be safe.
14. Fight bravely so that we don’t think you’re cowardly.
15. So that the enemies do not capture the city, the whole army sets out.
16. We wage war so that you may not capture the city.

05.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [32] dependent uses [1] purpose [i] + present subjunctive (1)

So far, we have looked at the subjunctive in independent clauses — sentences that can stand on their own, for example:

Veniat │ Let him / her come.
Requiēscat in pāce │ May he rest in peace.
Utinam vēnisset │ If only he had come.
Vivāmus, mea Lesbia, atque amēmus │ Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love.

Now we are going to look at the subjunctive in dependent clauses.

A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a sentence and depends on a main (independent) clause to make sense. Subordinate clauses are most often introduced by a conjunction e.g. ‘because’, ‘when’, ‘although’ etc.

(1) I am going to ask her for money ¦ (2) so that I can buy a present.

(1) Let’s go to the seaside ¦ (2) even though it’s raining.

(1) is the principal / main clause; it could stand alone as a separate sentence and still be understood.

(2) is a subordinate clause; it cannot stand alone and is dependent upon the main clause to make sense.

There are many different types of subjunctive use and, as with the independent uses, each type has its own name. Sometimes, the modern English translation does not convey these distinctions. However, slightly older forms of English do convey these distinctions, so we will also use them to make the meaning clear.

the subjunctive of purpose

[1]

(1) John went to the baker’s ¦ (2) (in order) to buy a cake.

(1) John went out of the room ¦ (2) (in order) to avoid her.

French, German and Russian can express (2) in the same way i.e. Fr. pour + infinitive; Gmn. um … zu + infinitive; Russ: chtoby + infinitive

Latin does not express the idea in that way, and, in now rather ‘old fashioned’ English, it can be matched:

(1) John went to the baker’s ¦ (2) in order that / so that he might buy a cake. Yes, it sounds stilted, but it isn’t wrong.

(1) John went out of the room ¦ (2) in order that / so that he might avoid her.

Latin uses the conjunction ut (in order that) + the subjunctive, and the thinking behind both the Latin and the somewhat archaic English equivalent is the same.

John went to the baker’s ¦ (2) to buy a cake.

At the moment statement (2) was made, had John bought the cake? The answer is, of course, no. Whether John did buy a cake, or bought doughnuts instead has nothing to do with it.

The subjunctive expresses an action viewed as intended or anticipated, not asserted as fact.

In other words: (1) John went to the baker’s (2) to buy a cake. (3) The cake which he bought was very expensive. In grammatical terms, (3) is irrelevant. Yes, John did buy a cake, but when statement (2) was made, he hadn’t yet bought it, and Latin would express (2) with the subjunctive.

Mīlitēs pugnant ¦ ut patriam dēfendant. │ The soldiers fight in order to / so that they may defend the homeland.

Imagine that, at the moment the statement is made, a “door” shuts — you cannot see what comes next, because all that matters is that defending the homeland was the purpose, the intention.

[2] The word to look out for is ut (or: utī); while ut has other meanings, it is often the ‘sign’ that a purpose clause is to follow.

With the present subjunctive: future intention

Mīlitēs veniunt ¦ (1) ut oppidum (2) capiant.

Literally: The soldiers are coming ¦ (1) in order that / so that (2) they may capture the town.

> The soldiers are coming to capture the town.

Rōmam īs ¦ (1) ut cīvēs (2) dēfendās.

Literally: You are going to Rome ¦ (1) in order that (2) you may defend the citizens.

> You are going to Rome to defend the citizens.

[ii] A negative purpose i.e. in order not to do something is expressed either with nē alone or with ut … nē … + the subjunctive:

Librum cēlat ¦ (1) nē puerī eum (2) videant.

Literally: He hides the book ¦ (1) in order that (2) the boys may not see it.

> He hides the book so (that) the boys won’t see it.

Some books on Latin grammar use the English word ‘lest’ to illustrate this idea, which, although it means the same, is rather archaic and a little confusing. I only refer to it here since you may come across it:

He hides the book ¦ lest the boys (may) see it [ = so that they don’t see it]

[iii] Examples from Cicero:

Lēgum idcircō servī sumus, ut līberī sīmus. │ For this reason we are subject to the laws, so that / in order that we may be free.

Tusculānum vēnditat, ut … emat Paciliānam domum  │ He is selling his place at Tusculum (in order) to buy Pacilius’ house.

[iv] negative purpose clauses

In Catullus 5, the author, talking about how many kisses he and Lesbia should ‘steal’, suggests it should be thousands:

conturbābimus illa, nē sciāmus, │ we shall shake them into confusion in order that we may not know,

aut nē quis malus invidēre possit │ and so that nobody evil (no wicked person) may be able to envy us,

scālās parārī iubet, nē quam facultātem dīmittat (Caesar)│ he orders ladders to be prepared in order not to let any opportunity slip [literally: in order that he may not let slip …] 

A key point to remember – which will become more apparent in later posts – is that subjunctive of purpose does not express what was done, but why it was done.

04.05.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [3]: Orgetorix

Language focus: passive

Anteā exercitus Rōmānus ab Helvētiīs erat superātus atque propter hanc causam Rōmānī ab Helvētiīs nōn timēbantur. Apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus erat Orgetorīx. Is rēgnī studiō adductus est atque coniūrātiōnem fēcit. Orgetorīx Helvētiōs cum omnibus cōpiīs dē fīnibus suīs in Galliam dūcere cupiēbat atque omnēs gentēs superāre. Suīs facile persuāsit, quod Helvētiī nātūrā locī undique continentur.

____________________

Previously the Roman army had been defeated by the Helvetii, and for this reason the Romans were not feared by the Helvetii. Among the Helvetii, Orgetorix was by far the noblest. He, having been driven on by desire for kingship, formed a conspiracy. Orgetorix wished to lead the Helvetii with all their forces out of their own territory into Gaul and to overpower all the tribes. He easily persuaded his people that the Helvetii are hemmed in on all sides by the nature of their location.

03.05.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [26] [iv]: grammar

Prīma lūx est. Nōn iam est nox, sed lūx nōn est clāra. Avēs nōn iam quiētem capiunt. Omnēs excitantur. Iam arborēs ubi per tōtam noctem dormiēbant relinquunt. Nōn iam avēs silent. Undique audīrī possunt. Ad agrōs properant. Ibi est cōpia frūmentī et avēs cibum dēsīderant. Prīmā lūce collēs Rōmae sunt obscūrī. Nunc Carolus et Maria et pater et māter in summō colle Rōmae stant. Undique circumspectant. Urbs semper nātūrā pulchra nunc etiam pulchrior est. Flūmen nōn longē abest. Ibi paucae nāvēs nāviculaeque vidērī possunt. Caelum nunc clārius vidētur. Ibi nūllae nūbēs sunt et diēs erit pulcher. Diū Americānī silent ubi urbem spectant. Maestī sunt quod hōra appropinquat ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere. Ubi antīquās ruīnās vident, dē temporibus antīquīs putant: ōlim Rōmānī antīquī in illō flūmine natābant et corpora valida habēbant. In illō locō rēgēs tēcta sua aedificābant. Ibi mīlitēs Rōmānī bellum parābant.

“Ubi est urbs tam pulchra quam Rōma?” rogat Iūlia. “Nūlla pulchrior est in tōtā Eurōpā.”

Subitō vir huic locō appropinquat. Quis est? Poēta amīcōs suōs salūtat. Iam lūx est clārior et urbs clārē vidētur. Omnēs in saxō sedent. Colloquium nōn est longum quod paene est tempus Rōmam relinquere. Mox poēta cum suīs amīcīs viā angustā dē summō colle properat. Prope rīpam Tiberis omnēs “Valēte” inquiunt. Posteā poēta sōlus domum it.

Nunc Americānī ab urbe properant. “Nūlla urbs erit grātior aut pulchrior quam Rōma,” inquit Maria. “Alia exempla urbium antīquārum vidēre cupiō.”

Aedificia urbis nōn iam vidērī possunt. Collēs urbis parvī videntur. Ā sinistrā et ā dextrā sunt agrī et silvae.

“Omnium terrārum,” inquit Iūlia, “Italia est mihi grātissima.”

Section C: Language and grammar

Answering grammar questions should not be long-winded, and are usually structured in such a way that one or two key points are expected. Do not give more than is required. It is important to remember that, unless stated otherwise, a question relates to the use of a word or phrase in context i.e. you need to refer to the text. Notes and answers are given at the end of the post.

[i] Give the first person singular present tense of abest.

[ii] Give the nominative singular of urbium.

[iii] What type of word is diū?

[iv] (1) What case is temporibus and (2) why is it being used?

[v] (1) What tense is dormiēbant and (2) why is it being used?

[vi] Give one example from the text of a comparative adjective.

[vii] Give one example from the text of a present passive verb.

The next questions are at a higher level:

[viii] Give one example from the text of a present passive infinitive.

[ix] Omnium terrārum …Italia est mihi grātissima.

(1) What case and number are the words in bold, and (2) why is it being used?

[x] What two clause types are used here?

Maestī sunt (1) quod hōra appropinquat (2) ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere.

[xi] Subitō vir huic locō appropinquat.

(1) What case are the words in bold, and (2) why is that case being used?

____________________

[i] Give the first person singular present tense of abest.

absum

[ii] Give the nominative singular of urbium.

urbs

[iii] What type of word is diū?

adverb

Grammatical terms do not normally need to be explained. We assume that, for example, a teacher or examiner knows what an adverb is! It merely asks you to identify the word type.

[iv] (1) What case is temporibus and (2) why is it being used?

(1) ablative; (2) with the preposition dē (about)

[v] (1) What tense is dormiēbant and (2) why is it being used?

(1) imperfect; (2) an action that was incomplete / was happening / used to happen; you should include a translation to specify what is meant in context: … ubi per tōtam noctem dormiēbant … │ … where they were sleeping throughout the whole night …

[vi] Give one example from the text of a comparative adjective.

The question is simply testing you on your understanding of terms commonly used in grammar:

any one of: clārior; grātior; pulchrior

[vii] Give one example from the text of a present passive verb.

Any one of: vidētur; videntur; excitantur

The next questions are at a higher level:

[viii] Give one example from the text of a present passive infinitive.

any one of: audīrī; vidērī

[ix] “Omnium terrārum …Italia est mihi grātissima.”

(1) What case and number are the words in bold, and (2) why is it being used?

(1) genitive plural; (2) used when the superlative relates to something  / someone else e.g. the bravest of (all) the soldiers: Omnium terrārum … grātissima │ the most pleasing … of all lands

[x] What two clause types are used here?

Maestī sunt (1) quod hōra appropinquat (2) ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere.

(1) subordinate clause of reason with quod (because)

(2) subordinate clause of time with ubi (when)

[xi] Subitō vir huic locō appropinquat

(1) What case are the words in bold, and (2) why is that case being used?

(1) dative; (2) the verb appropinquāre (approach) is followed by a noun in the dative case and not, as might be expected, by the accusative

02.05.26: Level 1 (review); verbs; fourth conjugation present tense

17.03.24: 4th conjugation; reading 

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/408420498435891/

17.03.24: examples of fourth conjugation verbs

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/408443115100296/

17.03.24: practice in the 4th conjugation

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/408480011763273/

24.07.24: level 1; 4th conjugation verbs

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/476642254947048/

26.10.24: Level 1; review; practice in the verbs [9]; 4th conjugation

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/568783269066279/

01.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [31] tenses; spot the difference; the perfect subjunctive [ii] practice

In this exercise tick the tense, person and number of each verb; where there are two possibilities of tense, tick both. The first set indicate the markers to help you. The second set are random – but the markers are still there. Macrons are meaningful and determine tense/mood in this exercise, but it must be remembered that, in original Classical Latin literature, those distinctions are not shown and only context and sentence structure will determine what verb form is being used. This will become more apparent when the subjunctive in subordinate clauses is discussed.

01.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [30] tenses; spot the difference; the perfect subjunctive

The perfect subjunctive also has a distinctive marker: -ERI- / -ERĪ-

amāvERIm

amāvERĪs

amāverit

amāverīmus

amāverītis

amāverint

[i] -im, as an ending also appears in the 1^st person singular present subjunctive of a few irregular verbs

sum, esse > sim

mālō, mālle > mālim

nōlo, nōlle > nōlim

possum, posse > possim

volō, velle > velim

[ii] Likewise, -int is the 3^rd person plural present subjunctive of those verbs:

sint

mālint

nōlint

possint

velint

Therefore, look for the -ERI- marker that indicates the perfect subjunctive:

nōlim (present subjunctive) │ nōluERIm (perfect subjunctive)

mālint (present subjunctive) │ māluERInt (perfect subjunctive)

[iii] This was mentioned in the post entitled:

xx.yy.26: Level 3; Subjunctive [9]; the tenses [2] perfect subjunctive

There is very little difference between the future perfect indicative and the perfect subjunctive, the main distinction being:

[i] first person singular:

amāverō (future perfect indicative) │ amāverim (perfect subjunctive)

the future perfect indicative is formed by the perfect stem + the future of esse

amāv¦ERŌ

the perfect subjunctive is formed by the perfect stem + -eri + personal ending -m

amāv¦ERIm

[ii] In unedited texts without macrons – both tenses are identical in form.

[a] When macrons are used, a distinction is indicated in:

(1) the 2nd person singular:

amāveris (future perfect indicative) │ amaverīs (perfect subjunctive)

(2) the 1^st and 2^nd person plural; the distinction is only between long and short /i/ of the ending:

amāverimus (future perfect indicative) │ amāverīmus (perfect subjunctive)

amāveritis (future perfect indicative) │ amāverītis (perfect subjunctive)

[b] In the 3^rd person singular and plural, both are identical i.e. a long /i/ is never used:

amāverit (future perfect indicative: amāv¦ERIT / perfect subjunctive: amāv¦ERI¦t)

amāverint (future perfect indicative: amāv¦ERINT  / perfect subjunctive: amāv¦ERI¦nt)

In other words, apart from the first person singular, there is no way superficially of identifying whether the verb is future perfect indicative or perfect subjunctive. Context and the particular structure e.g. clause type will determine which one is being used.

01.05.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [2]: Description of Gaul (ii)

Language focus: passive

Quā dē causā Helvētiī quoque sunt fortiōrēs reliquīs Gallīs, quod proeliīs cum Germānīs saepe contendunt; aut eōs suīs fīnibus prohibent aut ipsī in eōrum fīnibus bellum gerunt. Ūna pars, quae ā Gallīs tenētur, initium capit ā flūmine Rhodanō; continētur Garumnā flūmine, Ōceanō, fīnibus Belgārum. Inferior pars flūminis Rhēnī ā Belgīs incolitur. Aquītānia continētur Garumnā flūmine et Pyrēnaeīs montibus atque Ōceanō.

____________________

For this reason the Helvetii also are braver than the rest of the Gauls, because they often fight in battles with the Germans; either they keep them out of their own territory or they themselves wage war in the Germans’ territory. One part, which is held by the Gauls, takes its beginning from the river Rhône; it is bounded by the river Garonne, the Ocean, and the territory of the Belgae. The lower part of the river Rhine is inhabited by the Belgae. Aquitania is bounded by the river Garonne and the Pyrenaean mountains and the Ocean.

30.04.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [26] [iii]: language focus and translation

Prīma lūx est. Nōn iam est nox, sed lūx nōn est clāra. Avēs nōn iam quiētem capiunt. Omnēs excitantur. Iam arborēs ubi per tōtam noctem dormiēbant relinquunt. Nōn iam avēs silent. Undique audīrī possunt. Ad agrōs properant. Ibi est cōpia frūmentī et avēs cibum dēsīderant. Prīmā lūce collēs Rōmae sunt obscūrī. Nunc Carolus et Maria et pater et māter in summō colle Rōmae stant. Undique circumspectant. Urbs semper nātūrā pulchra nunc etiam pulchrior est. Flūmen nōn longē abest. Ibi paucae nāvēs nāviculaeque vidērī possunt. Caelum nunc clārius vidētur. Ibi nūllae nūbēs sunt et diēs erit pulcher. Diū Americānī silent ubi urbem spectant. Maestī sunt quod hōra appropinquat ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere. Ubi antīquās ruīnās vident, dē temporibus antīquīs putant: ōlim Rōmānī antīquī in illō flūmine natābant et corpora valida habēbant. In illō locō rēgēs tēcta sua aedificābant. Ibi mīlitēs Rōmānī bellum parābant.

“Ubi est urbs tam pulchra quam Rōma?” rogat Iūlia. “Nūlla pulchrior est in tōtā Eurōpā.”

Subitō vir huic locō appropinquat. Quis est? Poēta amīcōs suōs salūtat. Iam lūx est clārior et urbs clārē vidētur. Omnēs in saxō sedent. Colloquium nōn est longum quod paene est tempus Rōmam relinquere. Mox poēta cum suīs amīcīs viā angustā dē summō colle properat. Prope rīpam Tiberis omnēs “Valēte” inquiunt. Posteā poēta sōlus domum it.

Nunc Americānī ab urbe properant. “Nūlla urbs erit grātior aut pulchrior quam Rōma,” inquit Maria. “Alia exempla urbium antīquārum vidēre cupiō.”

Aedificia urbis nōn iam vidērī possunt. Collēs urbis parvī videntur. Ā sinistrā et ā dextrā sunt agrī et silvae.

“Omnium terrārum,” inquit Iūlia, “Italia est mihi grātissima.”

Language focus:

[1] Passive forms

vidētur │ it is seen / it seems

videntur │ they are seen / they seem

excitantur │ they are awakened

audīrī possunt │ they can be heard

vidērī possunt │ they can be seen

[2] Comparative and superlative forms

[i] comparatives

grātior │ more pleasing / dearer

clārior │ brighter / clearer

clārius │ more clearly / brighter (neuter comparative)

pulchrior │ more beautiful

pulchrior quam Rōma │ more beautiful than Rome; grammar term: quam introduces the object of comparison i.e. X is (bigger) ¦ than Y

tam pulchra quam Rōma │ as beautiful as Rome

[ii] superlatives

grātissima │ most pleasing (or, depending on context, very pleasing) / dearest

grātissima + omnium terrārum │ the most pleasing + of all lands; grammar: relative superlative; genitive plural used when the superlative relates to something  / someone else e.g. the bravest of (all) the soldiers

summō │ highest

____________________

It is dawn / first light. Night is no longer here, but the light is not bright. The birds no longer take rest. Everyone is awakened. Now the trees in which they had slept through the whole night they leave. The birds are no longer silent. From every direction they can be heard. They hurry to the fields. There is an abundance of grain there, and the birds desire food. At first light the hills of Rome are dark. Now Carolus and Maria and their father and mother are standing on the highest hill of Rome. They look around in every direction. The city, always beautiful by nature, is now even more beautiful. The river is not far away. There a few ships and little boats can be seen. The sky now seems clearer. There are no clouds there, and the day will be beautiful. For a long time the Americans are silent while they look at the city. They are sad because the hour is approaching when it is necessary to leave Rome. When they see the ancient ruins, they think about ancient times: long ago the ancient Romans used to swim in that river and had strong bodies. In that place kings were building their houses. There Roman soldiers were preparing for war.

“Where is there a city as beautiful as Rome?” Julia asks. “None is more beautiful in all of Europe.”

Suddenly a man approaches this place. Who is he? A poet greets his friends. Now the light is brighter and the city is seen clearly. Everyone sits on the rock. The conversation is not long, because it is almost time to leave Rome. Soon the poet, with his friends, hurries down from the highest hill by a narrow road. Near the bank of the Tiber everyone says farewell. Afterwards the poet goes home alone.

Now the Americans hurry away from the city. “No city will be more pleasing or more beautiful than Rome,” says Maria. “I desire to see other examples of ancient cities.”

The buildings of the city can no longer be seen. The hills of the city seem small. On the left and on the right are fields and forests.

“Of all lands,” Julia says, “Italy is the most pleasing to me.”

29.04.26: Level 1 (review); verbs; third conjugation present tense

11.03.24: introduction to 3rd conjugation verbs ... and how to be a worthless dice player!

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/405326338745307/

21.07.24: level 1; 3rd conjugation verbs

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/476640698280537/

24.10.24: Level 1; review; practice in the verbs [8]; 3rd conjugation

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/560489039895702/

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/conjugations%3A%203rd%20%26%203-io

28.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [29] tenses; spot the difference; the sounds of the subjunctive present, imperfect and pluperfect

Image #1: You have now seen all the active forms of the subjunctive: present, perfect, imperfect and pluperfect. There are also passive forms, but we will look at those separately. Always remember with the subjunctive: keep it slow and steady!

Becoming familiar with the uses takes time – and practice, especially reading in context. However, recognising the subjunctive is fairly straightforward because there are distinct ‘markers’ that tell you what tense is involved.

Images #2 and #3: Here, we will look at how to recognise the present, imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive. We’ll look at the perfect subjunctive separately.

Think of the sounds of the subjunctives:

[i] Pluperfect subjunctives hISS …

amāvISSem

habuissēs

vīxisset

audīvisset

[ii] Imperfect subjunctives gRowl …

amāRēmus

habērētis

vīverent

audīrent

[iii] … and wE present subjunctives fEAr A lIAr

amEm

habEĀs

vīvAt

audIAt

Are there a few exceptions? Yes, there are, and those were shown when the individual tenses were discussed in earlier posts - but there are so few that it’s worth remembering:

“Pluperfect subjunctives hISS, imperfect subjunctives gRowl, and wE present subjunctives fEAr A lIAr.” Try saying that on the bus going home from work, and see what happens!

Image #4: all the verbs are subjunctives. Complete the table by [1] ticking the tense, and indicating [2] the person and [3] the number:

28.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [28] independent uses; subjunctives working together

[1] The words are a Christian formula closely associated with St. Benedict and the Benedictine order. It is meant to fend off the devil and his temptations.

Note: Satanās, -ae [1/m]: Satan; the Devil; a Greek type noun with a separate vocative form: Satanā

Crux sacra sit mihi lūx │ May the holy cross be my light

Nōn dracō sit mihi dux │ May not the serpent be my guide

Vade retrō Satanā, │ Move back, Satan,

Numquam suādē mihi vāna │ Never promote your vanities to me

Sunt mala quae lībās, │ What [the things] you pour out is [are] evil,

Ipse venēna bibās │ May you drink / you should drink / drink the poison(s) yourself.

[2] The student song: Gaudeāmus igitur

We’ve looked at separate verses; now we put it together

V1

Gaudeāmus igitur, │ Let us, therefore, rejoice

Iuvenēs dum sumus,

Gaudeāmus igitur,

Iuvenēs dum sumus!

Post iūcundam iuventūtem,

Post molestam senectūtem,

Nōs habēbit humus,

Nōs habēbit humus.

V2

Ubi sunt quī ante nōs

In mundō fuēre

Ubī sunt quī ante nōs

In mundō fuēre

V3

Abeās ad īnferōs, │ May you go away to the underworld,

Trānseās ad superōs │ May you cross over to the heavens

Quōs sī vīs vidēre

Quōs sī vīs vidēre

Vīvat Acadēmia, │ May the Academy live [= long live the Academy]

Vīvant professōrēs, │ May the professors live [= long live the professors]

Vīvat Acadēmia,

Vīvant professōrēs,

Vīvat membrum quodlibet, │ May each member live

Vīvant membra quaelibet, │ May all members live

Semper sint in flōre! │ May they always be in bloom!

Semper sint in flōre!

28.04.26: Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [1]: Description of Gaul (i)

Language focus: passive

Gallia omnis est dīvīsa in partēs trēs, quārum ūna incolitur ā Belgīs, alia ab Aquītānīs, tertia ab eīs quī ā nōbīs Gallī appellantur. Gallī ab Aquītānīs Garumnā flūmine, ā Belgīs Matronā et Sēquanā dīviduntur. Hōrum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae, quod proximī sunt Germānīs, quī trāns Rhēnum incolunt, quibuscum bellum semper geritur.

____________________

All Gaul has been divided (or: is divided*) into three parts, one of which is inhabited by the Belgae, another by the Aquitani, and the third by those who are called Gauls by us. The Gauls are separated from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, and from the Belgae by the Marne and the Seine. Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are nearest to the Germans, who live across the Rhine, and with whom war is continually waged.

*more appropriate in this context

27.04.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [26] [ii]: reading and comprehension (2) higher level

Below are extracts from the same text, but now the questions are different, and are targeted at examination level.

Section B: Close reading and inference

Inference is often associated with “open-ended” questions i.e. ones that are not simply a one word or one phrase answer but which require more detail, analysis and reference to the text. Suggested answers and answering techniques are given at the end of the post

Question [1]

Prīma lūx est. Nōn iam est nox, sed lūx nōn est clāra. Avēs nōn iam quiētem capiunt. Omnēs excitantur. Iam arborēs ubi per tōtam noctem dormiēbant relinquunt. Nōn iam avēs silent. Undique audīrī possunt.

How does the writer convey the change from night to morning?

Question [2]

Prīmā lūce collēs Rōmae sunt obscūrī. Nunc Carolus et Maria et pater et māter in summō colle Rōmae stant. Undique circumspectant. Urbs semper nātūrā pulchra nunc etiam pulchrior est. Flūmen nōn longē abest. Ibi paucae nāvēs nāviculaeque vidērī possunt. Caelum nunc clārius vidētur.

What details suggest that Rome is especially impressive from a high place?

Question [3]

Ubi antīquās ruīnās vident, dē temporibus antīquīs putant: ōlim Rōmānī antīquī in illō flūmine natābant et corpora valida habēbant. In illō locō rēgēs tēcta sua aedificābant. Ibi mīlitēs Rōmānī bellum parābant.

What impression does the writer give of ancient Rome?

Question [4]

Diū Americānī silent ubi urbem spectant. Maestī sunt quod hōra appropinquat ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere.

[a] What mood is created here and why?

[b] Based on your reading of the entire text, why do the Americans feel this way? What impression do they have of present-day Rome?

____________________

Section B: Close reading and inference; suggested answers; required skills

Question [1]

How does the writer convey the change from night to morning?

It’s a simple question but the way in which it is answered is more detailed and does not merely involve translation, but [i] ordering ideas [ii] Latin reference [iii] translation, and [iv] explanation; it isn’t for the reader to “second guess” your opinion.

Such an answer often begins with an overall comment, for example:

Together, repetition, contrast, and tense changes vividly convey the transition from quiet night to active morning.

Then move on to specifics and references:

[1] Repetition of nōn iam to emphasise what is no longer happening during the night time:

Nōn iam est nox │ It is no longer night.

Avēs nōn iam quiētem capiunt. │The birds are no longer resting [literally: … take rest]

Nōn iam avēs silent. │ The birds are no longer silent.

[2] The gradual change between night and morning:

Nōn iam est nox, sed lūx nōn est clāra. │ It’s no longer night, but the light is not bright.

[3] The change of activities and the beginning of morning routines; shift from imperfect tense to present tense

Iam arborēs ¦ ubi per tōtam noctem dormiēbant ¦ relinquunt. │ They (the birds) now leave the trees ¦ where they were sleeping through the whole night

Omnēs excitantur. │ Everybody is being woken up.

Undique audīrī possunt. │ They (the birds) can be heard everywhere.

[4] Contrast between sound imagery and verb usage i.e. from the absence to the presence of sound.

From (1) Nōn iam avēs silent, to (2) Undique audīrī possunt, undique emphasising the spread of sound.

Bear key words in mind if you are answering this type of question:

• How does the writer convey …?
• choice / use (of vocabulary, verbs etc.)
• contrast
• repetition
• shift (in tenses)
• text reference

Question [2]

What details suggest that Rome is especially impressive from a high place?

Note suggest i.e.it is not explicitly stated, but implied by text references:

(1) Prīmā lūce collēs Rōmae sunt obscūrī. (2) Nunc Carolus et Maria et pater et māter in summō colle Rōmae stant. Undique circumspectant.

• the darkness of the hills at dawn compared to (2) being able to look around and see everywhere / in all direction (3) from the highest / very high high hill, or: on the top of the hill

This is paraphrasing – not a translation – of the original text, but still shows understanding of meaning and highlights points to justify your answer.

(4) Urbs semper nātūrā pulchra nunc etiam pulchrior est.

• (4) An already naturally beautiful city now looks even more beautiful from this position.

(5) Flūmen nōn longē abest. Ibi paucae nāvēs nāviculaeque vidērī possunt. Caelum nunc clārius vidētur.  

• Visibility is improved: sights, such as the river and the boats – including small boats (nāviculae) – are closer and clearly seen, and the sky seems clearer.
• Use of vidērī possunt and clārius vidētur i.e. emphasis of visibility

Key words:

• What details suggest that …?
• comparison
• highlighting points
• justify
• paraphrasing

Question [3]

Ubi antīquās ruīnās vident, dē temporibus antīquīs putant: ōlim Rōmānī antīquī in illō flūmine natābant et corpora valida habēbant. In illō locō rēgēs tēcta sua aedificābant. Ibi mīlitēs Rōmānī bellum parābant.

What impression does the writer give of ancient Rome?

[1] Look for phrases that lead you to the answer:

What impression does the writer give of ancient Rome

Ubi antīquās ruīnās vident, dē temporibus antīquīs putant: ōlim Rōmānī antīquī …

[2] What impression does the writer give of ancient Rome?

Again, the text does not tell you what impression you should have. It is for you to infer.

Begin with overall comments:

The writer presents ancient Rome as a powerful, impressive, and physically strong civilisation.

Justify your answer with references to the text and either translation or, better, paraphrasing. Make sure that each point is distinct and explained. Translation and / or paraphrasing alone is not sufficient.

References are made to strength, authority, and military power.

When the characters see the ancient ruins, they think about the past (dē temporibus antīquīs putant), which immediately links Rome’s present remains with its former greatness.

The statement that ancient Romans swam in the river and had strong bodies (corpora valida habēbant) suggests physical fitness and vitality.

The mention of kings building their houses (rēgēs tēcta sua aedificābant) implies wealth, status, and political power.

That Roman soldiers prepared for war (mīlitēs Rōmānī bellum parābant) highlights Rome’s military strength and organisation.

Question [4]

Most questions of this type lead you to a specific part of the text:

Diū Americānī silent ubi urbem spectant. Maestī sunt quod hōra appropinquat ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere.

[a] What mood is created here and why?

It is a simple example but it shows that answers may not be based solely on actions or what physically exists, but on emotions communicated through vocabulary choice and explanation of motive. If you are moving into Classical Latin literature, you will be reading not simply about what people did, but their motives and states of mind.

(1) A sad and reflective mood is created, suggested by …

(2) the Americans’ long silence (diū Americānī silent),

(3) That sadness is made explicit by maestī sunt.

(4) The departure is inevitable and fast approaching: hōra appropinquat ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere.

[b] Based on your reading of the entire text, why do the Americans feel this way? What impression do they have of present-day Rome?

This second question, however, is more challenging:

• It is not tied to a single passage.
• It requires you to select relevant evidence from across the whole text.
• You must construct and justify an argument, not identify a single detail.

This mirrors GCSE and AS/A2 level inference questions, where success depends on overview, selection, and justification, rather than close translation alone.

Frequent references are made to the beauty of Rome.

(1) the constant and natural beauty: urbs semper nātūrā pulchra

(2) emphasis that Rome is unmatched in beauty: 

• Ubi est urbs tam pulchra quam Rōma?
• Nūlla pulchrior est in tōtā Eurōpā
• Nūlla urbs erit grātior aut pulchrior quam Rōma.

Key words:

• What mood is created here?
• emotion
• explicit
• motive
• overview

In the end, this text is not Cicero or Tacitus or Catullus; it is from a school book. However, the focus is on the way in which a text may have simple comprehension questions as in the previous post as opposed to questions at a far higher level and which require specific skills in order to be able to answer them. It is the latter question type that provides the transition from understanding Latin at a beginner / lower- intermediate level to the upper-intermediate and advanced stages.