29.01.27: Comenius XIX: Living-Creatures: and First, Birds. | Animālia: & prīmum, Avēs (3) & (4)

[3]

the shee, 8. | fēmella, 8.
layeth eggs, 10. | pōnit ōva, 10.
in a nest, 9. | in nīdō, 9.
and sitting upon them, | iīsque incubāns,
hatcheth young ones, 11. | exclūdit pullōs, 11.

[4]

an egg is cover'd | ōvum tegitur
with a shell, 12. | testā, 12.
under which is | sub quā est
the white, 13. | albūmen, 13.
in this the yolk, 14. | in hōc vītellus, 14.

____________________

vocabulary

albūmen, -inis [3/n]: (Late Latin) white of an egg

exclūdō, -ere [3]: the main meaning of the verb is ‘shut out’ (Engl. deriv: exclude) but also has the figurative sense of ‘hatch’

fēmella, -ae [1/f]: girl; young woman; (here) the ‘female’ (of the species)

nīdus, -ī [2/m]: nest

ōvum, -ī [2/n]: egg

pullus, -ī [2/m]: any young animal, especially young fowl e.g. chick(en)

testa, -ae [1/f]: the original meaning is ‘burned clay’, ‘brick’, ‘tile’, but its meaning extends to the shell of a shellfish and, later, to other hard protective coverings

vītellus, -ī [2/m]: yolk of an egg

notes

(1) iīsque incubāns,| and (while) sitting upon them [or: as / while she sits upon them]; present active participle

(2) iīsque incubāns < incubō, -āre [1]: lie upon; this is an example of a compound verb [in + cubō], many (but not all) of which are followed by the dative case

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/02/130425-level-3-verbs-with-dative-case-1.html

(3) testa, -ae [1/f]: shell

ōvum tegitur ¦ testā | the egg is covered ¦ with / by a shell

28.01.27: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [39] (2)

[4] Complete the Latin text with the words and phrases listed below:

“The column of barbarians (1) kept marching all the way to the river. They crossed the river in small boats. The barbarians (2) were approaching the fort. (3) They did not turn their backs, and when (4) they came up to the fort, (5) they launched an attack. The battle was long. The farmers inside the fort (6) fought fiercely, but they were not able (7) to drive the barbarians away from the fort. A fort of this kind was not strong. The barbarians (8) were breaking down the gate of the fort. They came right into the fort and (9) drove out the terrified farmers. Many (10) had been killed.”

Intereā usque ad flūmen agmen barbarōrum (1) __________. Nāviculīs flūmen trānsībat. Barbarī castellō (2) __________. (3) __________ et ubi ad castellum (4) __________, (5) __________. Proelium erat longum. Agricolae intrā castellum (6) __________ sed barbarōs ā castellō (7) __________ nōn poterant. Castellum huius generis nōn erat validum. Barbarī iānuam castellī (8) __________. Usque in castellum vēnērunt et agricolās perterritōs (9) __________. Multī (10) __________.

ācriter pugnābant; appropinquābant; expulērunt; frangēbant; impetum fēcērunt; iter faciēbat; occīsī erant; pellere; succēdēbant; terga nōn vertēbant

[5]

Subitō in cōnspectū agricolārum agmen sociōrum vidēbātur. Apud agricolās laetitia erat magna. Quamquam sērī erant sociī (paene prīma vigilia erat) agricolās servābant. Agmen ad castellum succēdēbat. Statim dux sociōrum perīculum vīdit. Signa vertī iussit et barbarōs ante sē pepulit.

Post proelium discipulī castellum restituērunt. Fenestrae et iānuae frāctae restitūtae sunt. Crās aliud proelium erit.

[i] “Apud agricolās laetitia erat magna.” Give the reason for this. (1)

[ii] How do we know that this event happened in the early evening? Quote and translate the Latin phrase, and explain the use of the noun. (3)

[iii] “Quamquam sērī erant sociī …” Translate this phrase and identify the clause type. (2)

[iv] What danger was seen? (1)

[v]

[a] What is the literal translation of “signa vertī iussit”? (1)

[b] How might it be more fluently conveyed in English? (1)

[vi] What was the outcome of the commander’s order? (1)

[vii] How do we know that the fort had been damaged? Quote and translate the Latin phrases. (4)

____________________

[4]

Intereā usque ad flūmen agmen barbarōrum (1) iter faciēbat. Nāviculīs flūmen trānsībat. Barbarī castellō (2) appropinquābant. (3) Terga nōn vertēbant et ubi ad castellum (4) succēdēbant, (5) impetum fēcērunt. Proelium erat longum. Agricolae intrā castellum (6) ācriter pugnābant sed barbarōs ā castellō (7) pellere nōn poterant. Castellum huius generis nōn erat validum. Barbarī iānuam castellī (8) frangēbant. Usque in castellum vēnērunt et agricolās perterritōs (9) expulērunt. Multī (10) occīsī erant.

[5]

[i] the farmers suddenly caught sight of the column of allies (1)

[ii] paene prīma vigilia (1) | almost the first vigil (1); vigilia, -ae [1/f]: (military) refers to one of the four ‘watches / vigils’ i.e. divisions of the night (1)

[iii] Although the allies were late (1); concessive (1)

[iv] column approaching the fort

[v]

[a] He ordered the standards to be turned.

[b] He ordered the troops to turn around.

Note: although signa refers physically to the military standards, they represent in this context all the troops who are marching behind them i.e. if the standards are turned around, then the troops will also reverse their direction

[vi] He drove the barbarians ahead of him (1)

[vii]

discipulī castellum restituērunt (1) | the pupils repaired the fort (1)

fenestrae et iānuae frāctae (1) | the broken / smashed windows and doors (1)

27.01.27: Level 1-2 (review): Julia (a Latin Reader) [9] (5)

HORĀTIUS COCLES (5)

Cīvēs Rōmānī intereā pontem summīs vīribus excīdunt. Mox pontem in flūmen prōsternent. Tum Lartius et Herminius hastās in hostem iaciunt, et summīs vīribus per pontem in tūtum locum ruunt. Horātius autem adhūc in extrēmō ponte stat, et sōlus in Etrūscōs ferōciter pugnat.

Rōmānī autem, iam terrōris plēnī, "Ō Horātī retrō," exclāmant, "retrō – nunc tūta est via; mox nūllus pōns trāns flūmen erit, et hostēs tē vincent et necābunt." Sed magnō fragōre pōns in flūmen cecidit, et inter undās spūmōsās omnia ad pontum natābant.

[i]

vīs, vīs [3/f]: force; (plural) vīrēs, -ium: (overwhelming) force, strength; summīs vīribus:  with all one’s strength

[ii]

iaciō, -ere [3-iō]: I throw

[iii]

spūmōsus, -a, -um: foamy

tūtus, -a, -um: safe

[iv]

retrō: back, backward

____________________

The Roman citizens meanwhile are cutting down the bridge with all their strength. Soon they will cast the bridge into the river. Then Lartius and Herminius throw their spears at the enemy, and with all their strength rush across the bridge to a safe place. But Horatius still stands at the end of the bridge, and alone he is fighting fiercely against the Etruscans.

But the Romans, now full of fear, cry out: “O Horatius, go back! Go back – now the way is safe; soon there will be no bridge across the river, and the enemy will defeat and kill you.” But with a great crash the bridge fell into the river, and among the foaming waves everything was floating toward the sea.

26.01.27: Level 1; First Latin Lessons (1); nominative and accusative cases: 1st declension; singular

I: America patria mea est. America patria tua est. Americam amō. Patriam meam amō. Americam amās.

II: Hibernia īnsula est. Britannia īnsula est. America nōn est īnsula. Italia nōn est īnsula.

III: Hibernia nōn est patria mea. Italia nōn est patria mea. Amīca mea Italiam amat. Amīca tua quoque Italiam amat. Italia est terra pulchra.

IV: Hibernia est īnsula pulchra. Britannia quoque est īnsula pulchra. Britannia est magna īnsula. Hibernia est magna īnsula.

V: America est terra pulchra. Amīca tua Americam amat. Amīca mea Britanniam amat. Patria mea terra pulchra est. Patria tua īnsula est. Īnsulam amō.

(1) vocabulary

• amō: I love
• amās: you love
• amat: (he / she / it) loves
• est: (he / she / it) is
• amīca: friend (female)
• īnsula: island
• terra: land
• magna: large
• pulchra: beautiful
• mea: my; mine
• tua: your; yours
• quoque: also

(2) In Latin there is no definite article ('the') or indefinite article ('a / an'); īnsula can mean 'the island' or ''an island' or 'island'.

Britannia est magna īnsula. | Britain is a large island.

(3) Two endings are shown in the text:

[i] -a

America patria mea est. | America is my homeland.

[ii] -am

Americam amō. | I love America.

(4) Nouns in Latin belong to declensions; this is the term used to describe a pattern of endings which the nouns share. There are five declensions in Latin:

all the nouns here belong to the first declension; almost all nouns in the first declension are feminine:

amīca; Britannia; Hibernia; īnsula; Italia; patria; terra

[i] -a: the nominative case

[a] the subject of the sentence, the person / thing that performs the action:

Amīca mea [subject; nominative case] ¦ Italiam amat.

• My friend ¦ loves Italy.

[b] The subject may not be performing an action, but is being described:

America [subject; nominative case] ¦ patria mea est.

• America ¦ is my homeland.

[c] the predicate of the sentence, most often after the verb ‘to be’:

America ¦ patria mea [predicate; nominative case] ¦ est.

• America ¦ is ¦ my homeland.

[ii] -am: the accusative case

This indicates the direct object of the sentence, the person / thing affected by the action:

Americam [direct object; accusative case] ¦ amō.

• I love ¦ America.

This text deals with the nominative and accusative singular of 1^st declension nouns:

1^st declension: nouns end in -a

[i] Nominative singular: īnsula

[ii] Accusative singular: īnsulam

(5)

[i] nominative case singular: -a

Britannia īnsula est.

• Britain is an island.

Italia nōn est īnsula.

• Italy is not an island.

[ii] accusative case singular: -am

Īnsulam amō.

• I love ¦ the island.

Amīca mea ¦ Britanniam ¦ amat.

• My friend loves ¦ Britain.

The same endings apply to 1^st / 2^nd declension adjectives* i.e. not to all adjective types:

Amīca mea ¦ Italiam amat.

• My friend ¦ loves Italy.

Italia est ¦ terra pulchra.

• Italy is ¦ a beautiful country.

Patriam meam ¦ amō.

I love ¦ my homeland.

*Adjectives will be discussed in more detail in the next post.

LINKS

Nominative case (all posts)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/nominative%20case

29.02.24: accusative case singular of first declension nouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/29.html

____________________

I: America is my homeland. America is your homeland. I love America. I love my homeland. You love America.

II: Ireland is an island. Britain is an island. America is not an island. Italy is not an island.

III: Ireland is not my homeland. Italy is not my homeland. My friend loves Italy. Your friend also loves Italy. Italy is a beautiful country.

IV: Ireland is a beautiful island. Britain is also a beautiful island. Britain is a large island. Ireland is a large island. America is a beautiful country. Your friend loves America. My friend loves Britain. My homeland is a beautiful country. Your homeland is an island. I love the island.

25.01.27: Level 4; tempus est iocundum (Codex Buranus c1230) [2] translation; notes

repost from: https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/06/040724-tempus-est-iocundum-2.html

This is a ‘gentler’ version of the same song but still has that Mediaeval colour.

Note: for those who have been following the posts and / or the alternative site, every feature of Latin has been discussed before, and so this is a tremendous example of all the jigsaw pieces coming together.

Each verse is only a couple of lines. I’ll begin with verse #1 [V1] and the refrain

[V1] Tempus est iocundum, ō virginēs, modo congaudēte vōs iuvenēs │ The time is pleasing, you virgins, just rejoice, you young men

congaudeō, congaudēre [2]: (Late Latin) rejoice; here it’s in the imperative / command form (talking to more than one person) i.e. gaudēte

• iocundus, -a, -um (Late Latin): joyful (CL: iūcundus)
• iuvenis, -is [3/m]: young man
• tempus, temporis [3/n]: time
• virgō, virginis [3/f]: girl; maiden; virgin

Chorus: it has a very good example of different noun and adjective types working together

Ō, ō, tōtus flōreō! │Oh, oh, I am blossoming!

iam amōre virginālī tōtus ārdeō, novus, novus amor est, quō pereō. │ I’m totally burning with first love, it’s a new, new love from which I’m dying

• ārdeō, ārdēre [2]: burn
• flōreō, flōrēre [2]: bloom; blossom; flower
• tōtus, -a, -um: completely; the grammar FBI will say that it should be tōta because a girl is singing! It didn’t seem to bother them in 1230.
• pereō, perīre: die; perish; it’s come up before: eō, īre (go) can have prefixes to change its meaning
• amōre pereō: the ablative expresses the cause; I am burning with [because of] love

But, here’s the grammar point to note

• amor, amōris [3/m]: love; a third declension noun
• novus, -a, -um: new; a 1st/ 2nd declension adjective
• virginālis, -e: maidenly (or ‘first’ in the sense of your ‘first love’); a 3rd declension adjective

[i] iam amōre [3rd declension noun] virginālī [3rd declension adjective] tōtus ārdeō

• I am completely burning with first love

[ii] novus, novus [1st/ 2nd declension adjective] amor [3rd declension noun] est, quō pereō

• It is a new, new love from which I’m dying.

The adjective and the noun agree in gender, number and case but they retain their own endings.

Here are the rest of the verses:

[V2] Cantat philomena sīc dulciter, et modulāns audītur; intus caleō │The nightingale sings so sweetly, and it is heard singing, and I am hot inside

• caleō, calēre [2]: to be hot (check the posts on weather!)
• cantō, cantāre [1]: sing
• dulcis, -e [3]: sweet; and there is an example of how Latin forms some adverbs: dulciter: sweelty
• intus: (adverb) within; inside
• modulāns, modulantis [3]: (here) singing

Note: passive

• audit: he / she / it hears
• audītur: he / she / it is heard

[V3] Flōs est puellārum, quam dīligō, et rosa rosārum, quam sepe videō; │ She is the flower of the girls whom I love, and the rose of the roses whom I often see

• dīligō, dīligere [3]: love
• flōs, flōris [3/m]: flower
• sepe = saepe (often); Mediaeval spelling shift from /ae/ > /e/ to reflect pronunciation change
• videō, vidēre [2]: see

[V4] Mea mē cōnfortat prōmissiō, mea mē dēportat negātiō. │ My promise strengthens me, my refusal carries me away

[V5] Mea mēcum lūdit virginitās, mea mē dētrūdit simplicitās. │My virginity plays with me, my innocence pushes me down

Note: in some versions the ‘mea’ becomes ‘tua’ i.e. your promise strengthens me etc. I’m following the exact lyrics from the Youtube version.

• cōnfortō, cōnfortō [1]: strengthen
• dēportō, dēportāre [1]: carry off
• dētrūdō, dētrūdere [3]: push down
• lūdo, lūdere [3]: play
• mē¦cum: with me

Four 3rd declension nouns that always have the same type of stem change: -iō, -tās

• negatiō, negātiōnis [3/f]: refusal
• prōmissiō, prōmissiōnis [3/f]: promise
• simplicitās, simplicitātis [3/f]: innocence; simplicity
• virginitās, virginitātis [3/f]: maidenhood; virginity

[V6] Sile, philomēna, prō tempore, surge cantilēna dē pectore. │Be silent, nightingale, for a while, rise up, song, from (my) breast

• sileō, silēre [2]: be silent; imperative / command talking to one person i.e. sile
• surgō, surgere [3]: arise; imperative / command talking to one person i.e. surge
• cantilēna, -ae [1/f]: (old) song
• pectus, pectoris [3/m]: breast

[V7] Tempore brūmālī vir patiēns, animō vernālī lascīviēns. │In the winter time a man (is) patient, frisky with the breath of spring

• animus, -ī [2/m]: soul; ‘life force’, but ‘the breath / spirit of spring’ is quite neat
• vir, -ī [2/m]: man

2 adjectives to describe seasons

• brūmālis, -is [3]: winter; wintry; ablative of time when: tempore brūmālī (in the winter time)
• vernālis, -e [3]: spring

Note the regular stem changes of these types ending in -ns

patiēns, patientis [3]: patient

lascīviēns, lascīvientis [3]: frolicking; “frisky”

[V8] Venī, domicella, cum gaudiō, venī, venī, pulchra, iam pereō. │Come, maiden, with joy, come, come, beautiful (girl), I’m dying now

• domicella, -ae [1/f]: (Mediaeval) young lady; maiden
• gaudium, -ī [2/n]: joy
• preposition cum + ablative
• pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum: beautiful
• veniō, venīre [4]: come; imperative / command form talking to one person i.e. venī 

25.01.27: Level 4; literature; the song that wakes the dead - tempus est iocundum (Codex Buranus c1230) [1] text

repost from: https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/06/040724-song-that-wakes-dead-tempus-est.html

Codex Buranus (c.1230)

Tempus est iocundum

[v1] Tempus est iocundum, ō virginēs, modo congaudēte vōs iuvenēs,

Refrain

Ō, ō, tōtus flōreō!

Iam amōre virginālī tōtus ārdeō, novus, novus amor est, quō pereō.

[v2] Cantat philomena sīc dulciter, et modulāns audītur; intus caleō

[v3] Flōs est puellārum, quam dīligō, et rosa rosārum, quam sepe videō;

[v4] Mea mē cōnfortat prōmissiō, mea mē dēportat negātiō.

[v5] Mea mēcum lūdit virginitās, mea mē dētrūdit simplicitās.

[v6] Sile, philomēna, prō tempore, surge cantilēna dē pectore.

[v7] Tempore brūmālī vir patiēns, animō vernālī lascīviēns.

[v8] Venī, domicella, cum gaudiō, venī, venī, pulchra, iam pereō.

24.01.27: Level 4; listening; Nūntiī Latīnī [4]

Imperātor Iapōniae Akihītō potestātem dēposuit. Kalendīs Maiīs Naruhītō fīlius maximus nātū illī successit. In Iapōniā Imperātor hīs ducentīs annīs numquam sē mūnere abdicāvit, sed petītū imperātōris Akihītō, quī octōgintā quīnque annōs nātus valētūdine labōrat, lēx mūtāta est. Dynastīa Iapōniae, quae potestātem inde ā quīntō saeculō tenet, est in mundō vetustissima.

[i] The article concerns:

A: a royal death

B: an abdication

C: a political overthrow

D: the birth of a son

[ii] When did this take place?

[iii] Who is the successor? (2)

[iv] When was the last time such a decision was taken?

[v] Who has made this request?

[vi] How old is he?

[vii] Why did he make this request?

[viii] What has been changed?

[ix] What two pieces of information are given about the dynasty? (2)

____________________

[i] B

[ii] May 1st

[iii] Naruhito (1); Akihito's eldest son (1)

[iv] more than 200 years ago / over 200 years previously

[v] the Emperor (Akihito)

[vi] 85

[vii] (suffering from) ill health / health reasons

[viii] the law

[ix] has held power since the fifth century (1); oldest in the world (1)

____________________

Emperor Akihito has abdicated. On 1 May, his eldest son, Naruhito, succeeded him. In Japan, no emperor has abdicated from office during the previous two hundred years, but at the request of Emperor Akihito, who at the age of eighty-five is suffering from ill health, the law has been changed. The Japanese dynasty, which has held power since the fifth century, is the oldest in the world.

11.07.26: Know your derivatives - and win £64,000

The video shows a good example of the way in which English often did not replace words with Latin derivatives but added to its vocabulary.

[1] Old English: reġn

Modern English: rain

Modern German: Regen; Modern Dutch: regen; Modern Swedish: regn

Most nouns and adjectives referring to the weather / natural conditions are Germanic in origin:

hot / heat / warm / cold

rain / wind / frost / snow

sun / moon / star / sky  

An interesting exception is the English noun air, which is (via French) from La: āēr. This is known as displacement: the native Old English noun lyft (Modern German: Luft) fell into disuse in favour of the Latin term.

[2] Latin-derived words, usually borrowed into English through French after the Norman Conquest, often form adjectives, technical and scientific vocabulary, more formal ("higher-register") words, and modern Neo-Latin coinages:

moon / lunar

star / stellar

sun / solar

wind / ventilate

warm / tepid

cold / frigid

[3] Sometimes, two words co-exist:

celestial < La: caelum (sky); compare: OE hēofan (heaven) > heofonlīċ > ME: heavenly

[4] Latin:

pluvius, -a, -um: rainy

pluviālis, -e: pertaining to rain

pluvia, -ae [1/f]: rain

This ends up in English derivatives and coinages:

[i] pluvial: pertaining to rain

We would never say a “pluvial day” – we always say a rainy day – but a geographer would refer to “pluvial climates” (characterised by persistent rainfall)

[ii] pluviometer: an instrument for measuring rainfall.

Interesting: we use a Germanic word rainfall to describe what’s happening, but a Latin (and Greek) word to measure it: pluvio- + -meter [< Anc. Gk. μέτρον (métron)]

23.01.27: Level 3+ (review); correlatives [2]

[1] Both Latin and English can extend the correlative beyond a simple pair:

nōn committendae eius modī perīculō, ut aut interīre aut aperīrī aut intercipī possint (Cicero)

• (Letters) of that kind should not be entrusted to danger, so that they might either be lost, or opened, or intercepted

ita multa vel īrācundē vel īnsolenter vel in omnī genere stultitiae īnsulsē adrogantur (Cicero)

• And so many things are arrogantly claimed in a tasteless way, either in anger, or insolently, or in every kind of foolishness

nec amantius nec honōrificentius nec cōpiōsius potuisse dīcī (Cicero)

• It could have been said neither more affectionately, nor more honourably, nor more fully.

Here, stylistically it sounds odd in English and so the sentence could equally be translated as:

• It could not have been said either more affectionately, or more honourably, or more fully.

[2] The highly emphatic Cicero …

As an orator Cicero was famous for his devastating legal and political speeches, a skill so formidable that it ultimately contributed to his own murder. He would use a number of devices in order to emphasise a point or to build anticipation – not unlike our contemporary politicians.

[i] In section [1] above you will note that the repetition of the correlative creates three statements that are grammatically similar or identical:

(1) nec amantius (2) nec honōrificentius (3) nec cōpiōsius potuisse dīcī

This is known as a tricolon, a very common feature of Cicero’s oratorical style although it is also used, as here, in his letters.

[ii] Likewise, in a letter to Atticus, the repetition of et extends beyond a mere correlative:

Tū autem, quī saepissimē cūram et angōrem animī meī sermōne et cōnsiliō levāstī tuō, quī mihi et in pūblicā rē socius et in prīvātīs omnibus cōnscius et omnium meōrum sermōnum et cōnsiliōrum particeps esse solēs, ubinam es?

• “But you — who have very often relieved the care and distress of my mind by your conversation and your advice, who are both my partner in public affairs and my confidant in all private matters, and are accustomed to share in all my conversations and my plans — where are you?”

This is an example of a crescendo: a lengthy accumulation of ideas showing how indispensable Atticus is to him, leading to a final dramatic statement.

23.01.27: Level 3+ (review); correlatives [1] introduction; et … et; aut … aut …; vel … vel; neque (nec) … neque (nec)

Reference list: each of the correlatives will be covered in depth with explanations and examples in this and the subsequent posts:

Reference list:

[i] et … et … | both … and …

[ii] aut … aut … | either … or …

[iii] vel … vel … | either … or …

[iv] nec (neque) … nec (neque) … | neither … nor …

[v] nōn sōlum / tantum / modo  … sed etiam … | not only … but also …

[vi] modo … modo … | now … now …; at one moment …. at another (moment) …

[vii] sīve (seu) … sīve (seu) … | whether … or …

[viii] (nōn) tam … quam … | (not) as / so … as …

[ix] tot … quot … | as many … as …

[x] tantum … quantum … | as much … as …

[xi] totiē(n)s … quotiē(n)s … | as often … as …

[xii] eō … quō … | the more … the more …

[xiii] tantō … quantō … | the more … the more …

[xiv] tālis … quālis … | of such a sort … as …

Introduction

[1]

He is both honest …

She is either Italian …

They are neither on holiday …

The three statements above give ‘half the story’; both, either, and neither signal that there is a second part to the sentence which is related to the first and completes the entire statement.

He is (1) both honest (2) and kind.

She is (1) either Italian (2) or Spanish.

They are (1) neither on holiday (2) nor at home.

[2]

both … and…

either … or …

neither … nor …

These are known as correlatives and are used to form correlative pairs i.e. two related statements.

[3] Latin uses correlatives in the same way, but note the following general remarks:

(1) Correlatives may be formed with identical words, for example:

et … et …

modo … modo …

(2) They may be formed with different words, for example:

nōn sōlum … sed etiam …

totiēns … quotiēns …

(3) They may reverse the order of the two parts, for example:

eō … quō [or: quō … eō]

tantō … quantō [or: quantō … tantō …]

(4) These posts deal with the most commonly occurring correlatives although Roman authors may at times use different combinations.

(5) It is important to note that dictionary translations of correlatives do not always neatly adapt to English renderings of the original Latin text; flexibility and creativity may be needed to convey the idea of the Latin correlative in a fluent way.

In this post we will focus on:

[i] et … et …

[ii] aut … aut …

[iii] vel … vel …

[iv] nec (neque) … nec (neque) …

et: and

aut / vel: or

nec (neque): and not / nor

As individual words, they have their own meanings. We look here at how the meaning changes when they are used in pairs:

[i] et … et … | both … and …

mihi enim perspecta est et ingenuitās et magnitūdō animī tuī (Cicero)

• For I have clearly perceived both your integrity and the greatness of your spirit.

quod ad mē dē rē pūblicā scrībis, disputās tū quidem et amanter et prūdenter (Cicero)

• As for what you write to me about the state, you argue both affectionately and wisely.

[ii] aut … aut … | either … or …

nōn dubitābam, quīn tē ille aut Dyrrachī aut in istīs locīs uspiam vīsūrus esset (Cicero)

• I had no doubt that he would see you either at Dyrrachium or somewhere in those places.

nam ad mē … maximē pertinet nēminem esse meōrum, quī aut tē nōn amet aut abs tē nōn amētur (Cicero)

• For it concerns me very much that there is no one of my people who either does not love you or is not loved by you.

[iii] vel … vel … | either … or …

fuit omnīnō difficile nōn obsequī vel amīcissimō hominī Lentulō, vel Metellō (Cicero)

• It was altogether difficult not to comply either with the very friendly man Lentulus or with Metellus.

nusquam facilius hanc miserrimam vītam vel sustentābō vel, quod multō est melius, abiēcerō (Cicero)

• Nowhere will I more easily either endure this most wretched life or — what is much better — cast it off.

[iv] nec (neque) … nec (neque) … | neither … nor …

nec mihi cōnsilium nec cōnsōlātiō dēesset (Cicero)

• I would lack neither counsel nor consolation

atque in eō neque auctōritāte neque grātiā pugnat (Cicero)

• and in that matter he fights with neither authority nor influence

neque mē tibi neque quemquam antepōnō (Cicero)

• I place neither myself nor anybody else before you

The following example contains an emphatic double negative:

nam cētera nōn possunt habēre eandem neque vim neque venustātem (Cicero)

[Lit: *cannot have … neither … nor …*]

In English such a construction has to be reworked so that one of the negative expressions is cancelled out and becomes positive:

• For the other things cannot have either the same force or charm.

22.01.27: Comenius XIX; Living-Creatures: and First, Birds. | Animālia: & prīmum, Avēs (2)

[2]

a bird, | avis,

(here the King's Fisher, 1.* | (hīc Halcyōn, 1.

making her nest in the sea.) | in marī nīdulāns.)

is covered with feathers, 2. | tegitur plūmīs, 2.

flyeth with wings, 3. | volat pennīs, 3.

hath two pinions, 4. | habet duās ālās, 4.

as many feet, 5. | totidem pedēs, 5.

a tail, 6. | caudam, 6.

and a bill, 7. | et rōstrum, 7.

____________________

vocabulary

(1) halcyōn, halcyonis [3/f]: kingfisher; see note (1)

also: alcyōn, -onis; alcēdō, -inis [3/f]

Both alcedo and halcyon are used in the zoological descriptors of the species

(2) plūma, -ae [1/f]: small, soft feather; plumage that covers the entire body of the bird

(3) penna, -ae [1/f]: larger flight feather; (pl.) wing

The English noun ‘pen’ (the writing instrument) is derived, via Old French, from Latin.

(4) āla, -ae [1/f]: wing

The noun is also used in transferred senses:

[i] as a military term, it refers to the wing of an army “(thus conceived of as a bird of prey), commonly composed of the Roman cavalry and the troops of the allies, esp. their horsemen (Lewis & Short)”

dextra āla — in ālās dīvīsum sociālem exercitum habēbat — in prīmā aciē locāta est (Livy)

• The right brigade (for he had the troops of the allies divided into brigades) was placed in the first line.

Asinius Polliō, ālae praefectus (Tacitus)

• Asinius Pollio, prefect of a cavalry squadron

[ii] usually in the plural (ālae, -ārum), it can refer to the wings of a house, two small quadrangular apartments or recesses on the left and right sides of the ātrium [image #8; figure 5] 

While pennae and ālae are often used interchangeably as synonyms for ‘wings’ in everyday Classical Latin, technical and textbook contexts distinguish them. Here, pennīs refers to the flight feathers that make aviation possible, while ālās denotes the two structural limbs of the bird's body. Charles Hoole mirrors this pedagogical distinction by translating pennīs as ‘wings’ and utilizing the archaic English term ‘pinions’ for ālās to avoid repetitive phrasing.

(5) pēs, pedis [3/m]: foot

(6) cauda, -ae [1/f]: tail

(7) rōstrum, -ī [2/n]: beak; bill

[i] Resembling a bird’s beak, the term rōstrum also refers to the protruding battering ram at the bow of a Roman ship [image #9: rōstrum of a Roman warship].

[ii] The English term rostrum (pl. rostra), a raised platform, originates in the decoration in Ancient Rome of the public speaking platform with the rōstra of captured enemy ships.

[images #10 and #11]: artist’s reconstruction of the Ancient Roman rōstra; reproduction of the Rostral Column of Gaius Duilius (c. 260 BC)

notes

* (1) Comenius made no contribution to natural science, and he was profoundly alienated from the developments in science that occurred during his lifetime.

https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/social-sciences-and-law/education-biographies/john-amos-comenius

Whether that is an accurate assessment of Comenius is beyond the scope of the work here. It was certainly not the author’s aim to tutor his pupils in scientific and natural discoveries, but to make the Latin language accessible, interesting, and relevant. In reality, kingfishers burrow into the earth along rivers, streams, or ponds to create their nests. Comenius' statement that the kingfisher makes its nest in the sea is based entirely on classical mythology. He is referencing the ancient Greek and Roman myth of the Halcyōn, where the gods transformed the grieving Alcyone into a bird that nested upon the ocean waves during a period of supernatural calm:

perque dies placidos hiberno tempore septem / incubat Alcyone pendentibus aequore nidis (Ovid)

• and in wintertime for seven peaceful days Alcyone sits on her nest floating on the sea.  

(2) hīc Halcyōn in marī nīdulāns | Here (is) the kingfisher (who is) making her nest in the sea.

Present active participle:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/present%20active%20participle

(3) tegitur plūmīs | is covered with / by feathers;

Ablative of means / instrument:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/02/240525-level-3-summary-of-of-uses-of.html

21.01.27: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [39] (1)

[1]

Paucīs ante diēbus discipulī castellum aedificāre cōnstituērunt. Altera pars māteriam parābat, altera castellum aedificāre coepit. Quīdam puerī in silvam prōcēdēbant. Secūrēs sūmēbant quod cōpiam māteriae habēre necesse erat. Secūribus paucās arborēs parvās caedēbant.

[i] What did the pupils decide to do? (1)

[ii] How were the tasks divided? (3)

[iii] What was the purpose of the axes? (2)

[2] Translate, paying particular attention to the different tenses and voices used:

Cum arboribus ad scholam redībant. Hīc altera pars discipulōrum omnia dispōnēbat. Quandō omnia disposita erant et castellum factum erat, septem discipulī in castellum convēnērunt. Dē impetū barbarōrum monitī erant et omnēs agricolae domōs suās relīquerant et hīc salūtem petēbant. (10)

[3]

Duo ē discipulīs, virī nōbilēs magnā vī, ducēs factī sunt. Necesse erat ducēs huius generis habēre. Trāns flūmen ē castellō tabernācula barbarōrum facile vidēbantur. (Ibi erant nūllī barbarī, sed cēterī discipulī.) Herī agricolae pontem frēgērunt. Ita enim barbarōs flūmen trānsīre nōn posse putābant. Sed barbarī nāviculās habēbant. Agricolae castellum relinquere nōlēbant neque audēbant nam barbarī ad impetum faciendum parātī erant.

In which order are the following referred to?

a broken bridge _____

characteristics of leaders _____

enemy tents _____

inability to cross a river _____

need to have leaders _____

preparations for an attack _____

refusal to leave the castle _____

small boats _____

____________________

[1]

[i] build a fort

[ii] one group prepared the timber (1); the other began building the fort (1); some boys went ahead into the forest (1)

[iii] a quantity of timber was needed (1); cut down a few small trees (1)

[2]

They were returning to the school (1) with trees (wood / timber) (1). Here another group of the students (1) was arranging everything (1). When everything had been arranged (1) and the fort had been built (1), seven students gathered in the fort (1). They had been warned about the attack of the barbarians (1), and all the farmers had left their homes (1) and were seeking safety here. (1)”

[3]

a broken bridge [4]

characteristics of leaders [1]

enemy tents [3]

inability to cross a river [5]

need to have leaders [2]

preparations for an attack [8]

refusal to leave the castle [7]

small boats [6]

20.01.27: Level 1-2 (review): Julia (a Latin Reader) [9] (4)

 HORĀTIUS COCLES (4)

Trēs igitur Rōmānī in angustō locō stetērunt. Nec Etrūscī pugnam dētrectāvērunt. Trēs prīncipēs contrā Rōmānōs prōcēdunt. Superbī et splendidī sunt prīncipēs; gladiīs coruscīs in Horātium et comitēs prōcēdunt. Horātius autem in hostem fulminis modō ruit, et prīnceps Etrūscus magnō fragōre ad terram cecidit. Lartius quoque et Herminius hostēs validīs hastīs vulnerāvērunt et humī prōstrāvērunt. Iterum Etrūscī mīlitēs fortēs ferōcēsque in Rōmānōs mīsērunt; iterum Rōmānī Etrūscōs necāvērunt.

Diū et ācriter pugnābant. Iam multa hostium corpora humī iacēbant. Etrūscī timēbant, et Sextum, Tarquiniī fīlium, incitāvērunt. Sed Sextus quoque Horātium timēbat et pugnam dētrectāvit, nec in Rōmānōs, tam dīrōs hostēs, prōcessit.

[i]

comes, comitis [3 m/f]: companion

humus, -ī [2/f]: ground; humī: on the ground

prīnceps, principis [3 m/f]: chief, prince

[ii]

cadō, -ere [3]: fall

dētrectō, -āre [1]: shirk, refuse

mittō, -ere [3]: send

procēdō, -ere [3]: advance; go forward

vulnerō, -āre [1]: wound

[iii]

dīrus, -a, -um: dreadful

[iv]

ācriter: keenly

modō: after the manner of; abl. of modus, -ī [2/m]: manner; way

____________________

So the three Romans stood in a narrow place. And the Etruscans did not avoid the battle. Three leaders advance against the Romans. The leaders are proud and splendid; they advance against Horatius and his companions with flashing swords. But Horatius rushed at the enemy like a thunderbolt, and the Etruscan leader fell to the ground with a great crash. Lartius and also Herminius wounded the enemy with strong spears and threw them to the ground. Again the Etruscan soldiers sent brave and fierce men against the Romans; again the Romans killed the Etruscans.

For a long time they fought fiercely. Now many bodies of the enemy were lying on the ground. The Etruscans were afraid, and they urged on Sextus, the son of Tarquin. But Sextus too was afraid of Horatius and avoided the battle, and did not advance against the Romans, such terrible enemies.