31.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [78] dependent uses [8] concessive clauses (3) etsī, etiamsī, tametsī

Some brief notes (at this stage) on other conjunctions that introduce concessive clauses.

[1] etsī, etiamsī, tametsī

These conjunctions are concessive in meaning, but their choice of mood follows the same pattern as conditional clauses. Conditional clauses are an extensive topic and so, for the moment, the focus should simply be on what these three conjunctions mean and how mood affects their use.

[i] With the indicative

The indicative is used when the speaker presents the concessive clause as a fact, something accepted as true and asserts that it does not affect the action. It is most often translated as ‘although’ or 'even if':.

Etsī id ipsum scīre cupiō, … (Cicero)

• Although I want to know one thing …

Nam ista vēritās, etiamsī iūcunda nōn est, mihi tamen grāta est (Cicero)

• For that truth, even if it is not pleasant, is nevertheless pleasing to me.

Etsī abest mātūritās, tamen nōn est inūtile (Cicero)

• Though ripeness of age is wanting, yet it is not useless

Tametsī iactat ille quidem illud suum arbitrium … (Cicero)

• Although he does indeed boast of that judgment of his ...

Tametsī hīs novīs amīcitiīs implicātī sumus (Cicero)

• Although we are [ = I am] involved in these new friendships

quam tibi, etiamsī nōn dēsīderās, tamen mittam cito (Cicero)

• and I will send it to you very soon, whether you want it or not [literally: even if you do not want (it)].

Etsī mōns Cevennā iter impediēbat, tamen ad fīnēs Arvernōrum pervēnit (Caesar).

• Although the Cevennes were blocking the route of the march, nevertheless (Caesar) arrived at the frontier of the Arverni.

Itaque, etsī nē anteā quidem dubitāvī, … (Cicero)

• And so, even if I had no doubt [ = did not even doubt] before …

Etsī numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspiciō … (Cicero)

• Although it has never been doubtful, I nevertheless perceive …

Etsī nōndum stipulātiōnēs lēgeram ... (Cicero)

• Even if I had not yet read the agreements …

Etsī incrēdibilī et singulārī calamitāte adflīctus sum, … (Cicero)

• Though I have been crushed by an incredible and unparalleled misfortune …

[2] With the subjunctive

The subjunctive is used when the speaker introduces a hypothetical or imagined concession and asserts that it does not affect the outcome expressed in the main clause. It is most often translated as ‘even if’.

Etiamsī nōn adiuvēs, haec facere possim.

• Even if you were not to help, I would (nevertheless) be able to do this.

This is a hypothetical concessive statement.

Quārē ita parātus est, ut, etiamsī vincere nōn possit, ... (Cicero)

• And therefore he is so equipped that, even if he should not be able to win …

Pol etsī taceās, palam id quidem est (Plautus)

• By Pollux, even if you were to keep silent, that is indeed common knowledge.

Etsī illī improbī sint atque aliter nōbīs faciant quam aequomst (Plautus)

• Even if those men are / should be dishonest and (would) act toward us otherwise than is fair, …

...etiamsī vērum esset... (Cicero)

• Even if it were true…

etiamsī ā lībrāriō admonitus esset (Cicero)

• even if he had been advised by the clerk

[3] Note: Latin often uses different verb forms to show how the speaker views a situation (as a fact or as something uncertain or imagined). As has been mentioned many times in previous discussions on the subjunctive, English does not always show this clearly, and the difference often has to be understood from the wording rather than from the verb alone.

In the examples above, however, you can see a subtle difference which is similarly expressed in English:

[i] Although you’re going / even if you go, you won’t meet him.

Here the speaker presents the action of going as fact or more likely.

[ii] Even if you went / were to go, you wouldn’t meet him.

Here the speaker presents the action of going as hypothetical or less likely.

It is worth bearing that distinction in mind when the topic of conditional clauses in Latin is dealt with in depth.

31.07.26: Level 3+; Comenius (1658) CXLIII; the besieging of a city [4] vocabulary and notes [iii]

This section examines some vocabulary used to express 17^th century warfare although the terms used are rooted in Classical Latin.

Vel mūrōs per scālās trānscendendō, aut diruendō arietibus, aut dēmoliendō tormentīs, vel dirumpendō portās exōstrā, vel ēiaculandō globōs tormentāriōs ē mortāriīs (ballistīs) in urbem …

[1]

mortārium, -ī [2/n]: mortar; in Classical Latin this denotes the bowl used for grinding or pounding substances. By extension, the English derivative refers to [i] the sand–lime/cement mixture prepared in such a vessel, and [ii] a short-barrelled artillery mortar, so named from its bowl-like shape rather than from any Roman military usage.

[2]

exōstra, -ae [1/f]: petard; Comenius uses this as a Neo-Latin term, applying a meaning that was not used in Classical Latin

Invented in 1579, the petard was a small bomb containing 2-3kg of gunpowder and used to blow up gates and walls.

“For ’tis the sport to have the engineer Hoist with his own petard (Shakespeare: Hamlet)”; the phrase referring in the play to being ‘lifted’ i.e. blown up by one’s own bomb has become an idiom for being foiled by one’s own plan or falling into one’s own trap.

The Ancient Romans did not have explosives and the noun exōstra had two meanings:

[i] (theatrical) a moveable piece of scenery to represent the interior of a room

[ii] (military) “… a peculiar kind of bridge, which was thrown from a tower of the besiegers upon the walls of a besieged town, and across which the assailants marched to attack those of the besieged who were stationed on the ramparts to defend the town” (Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Antiquities)

[3]

globus, -ī [2/m]: any small, round object

tormentārius, -a, -um: (Neo-Latin) relating to a firearm; the adjective is not attested in Classical Latin but obviously derived from tormentum.

____________________

The Gunpowder Plot, a foiled attempt to blow up the British Houses of Parliament on November 4^th 1605 made international headlines and reports were published throughout Europe in several languages including Latin. I have the impression the report was written quickly or incorrectly transcribed since there are errors (marked with asterisks):

… effigiēs septem Anglōrum quī Rēgem suum cum *paraecipuēs* [= praecipuōs] Statūs Anglicī Proceribus ad *Parlementum* [= Parlamentum] ut vocant convocātīs pulvere tormentāriō simul horrendō modō in ipsā domō *Parlemntī* [= Parlamentī] ēvertere voluērunt.

• … the images of the seven Englishmen who wanted to overthrow their king together with the noblemen as they call the leading men of the English State (who had been) summoned to Parliament at the same time in an horrific manner by means of gunpowder in the House of Parliament itself.

pulvis, pulveris [3/n]: powder

pulvis tormentārium: gunpowder i.e. the powder is used to propel the projectile

Similarly:

globus tormentārius: cannonball; “grenade”

There is a contemporary reference to both terms by Diego Collado, a Spanish Christian missionary (1587 – 1638):

Ego pulverem tormentārium cōnficiō: cum ergō ita sit: haereticīs et pyrātīs Holandīs vēndidī huiusmodī pulverem; illīs etiam ministrāvī quaerendō vīctū alia, sclopōs, et glandēs seu globōs tormentāriōs, et tormenta et alia īnstrūmenta bellica.

• I make the gunpowder, and as it is, I have sold it to the Dutch heretics and pirates. For obtaining my livelihood, I also procured other stuff for them: guns and bullets or cannon balls and cannons and other instruments of war.

glāns, glandis [3/f]: (Classical Latin) acorn; acorn-shaped nut e.g. chestnut, but the term was also used by the Romans to refer to a small ball of lead or clay hurled at the enemy from a sling; (Neo-Latin) bullet

The origin of the word sclopus - referring to a gun - is unclear, but its use here is not unique. Comenius uses it in the section of his book concerned with children’s games:

Sclopō vel arcū iaculantur │ They shoot with a “trunk” or a bow

The image from that section of the book shows the boy using some form of blow-pipe or pea-shooter, translated as “trunk” presumably since it’s wooden and cylindrical.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/080125-level-1-topic-school-18-sports.html

It appears to be related to: stloppus, -ī [2/m], a slap (the sound produced by striking upon the inflated cheek) [Lewis & Short]; also listed as scloppus in Gaffiot); variant forms appear in manuscripts including sclop- and scoph-, an onomatopoetic word conveying the sound; it is found in Italian: schioppo (gun) and scoppio (explosion) 

sclopētum, -ī [2/n]: (Neo-Latin) rifle

sclopetārius, -ī [2/m]: (Neo-Latin) rifleman

In the report on the Gunpowder Plot, the following statement is made:

Robertus Catesbī & Thomas Percī ictū sclopētī periēre 

• Robert Catesby and Thomas Percy perished from a gunshot

ictus,-ūs [4/m]: blow; strike; (Neo-Latin) referring to the shot from a gun

While this is of interest, words related to guns are not pertinent to the Ancient Romans since no such weaponry existed.

31.07.26: Level 3+; Comenius (1658) CXLIII; the besieging of a city [3] vocabulary and notes [ii]

Vel mūrōs per scālās trānscendendō, aut diruendō arietibus, aut dēmoliendō tormentīs, vel dirumpendō portās exōstrā, vel ēiaculandō globōs tormentāriōs ē mortāriīs (ballistīs) in urbem per ballistāriōs…

[1]

In Roman warfare:

[i] ballista, -ae [1/f]: ballista, a large free-standing catapult used for throwing stones or bolts

[ii] ballistārius, -ī [2/m]: the soldier who operated a ballista

Comenius equates the term with mortar although Roman ballistae were mechanically operated and did not employ gunpowder or explosive charges.

Ballista and other vocabulary referring to large-scale weaponry are often referred to as engines e.g. siege engines, hence the translator’s 17^th century use of engineers to describe the soldiers in charge of such devices.

[iii] tormentum, -ī [2/n]: any form of ‘engine’ for hurling missiles. We have in the text a Neo-Latin reworking of the word to refer to “big guns” i.e. cannons.

Two other devices similar to the ballista are:

[iv] onager, onagrī [2/m]: catapult for throwing stones

[v] scorpiō, scorpiōnis [3/m]: small catapult

scorpiōne ab latere dextrō trāiectus exanimātusque concidit (Caesar)

• He (was) pierced and killed on the right side by a scorpion and fell

Note also:

trāiciō, -ere, trāiēcī, trāiectus [3-iō]: pierce; stab

exanimō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: kill

[2]

[i] ariēs, -etis [3/m]: literally means the animal i.e. a male sheep, but was also used by the Romans to refer to a battering ram

In this excerpt from the Vulgate, the translator combines two ideas:

et vīneās et arietēs temperābit in mūrōs tuōs

• He shall set his battering engines against your walls.

[ii] vīnea, -ae [1/f]: mantlet, the Mediaeval military term for a portable wall or shed to stop projectiles. In Roman warfare, the vīnea was a moveable shed of wickerwork used to approach the walls of a besieged city.

In other words, they’ll get right up to the walls – safely – and then break them down!

[iii] testūdō, -inis [3/f]: [i] tortoise, turtle; [ii] the same function as vīnea above, but also the arrangement of shields over soldiers’ heads to afford protection

[iv] turris, -is [3/f] (acc. -em or -im): tower, especially military either for defence or mobile (turrēs ambulātōriae) for siege purposes

Quibus fortiter resistentibus vīneās turrēsque ēgit (Caesar)

• Since they were resisting bravely, he pushed forward mantlets and towers.

The use of the verb agō, -ere [3]: drive, clearly indicates that these are moveable.

testūdō, -inis [3/f]

29.07.26: Level 1 (review); vocabulary [1]: animals

[1] Which of the following animals ….

(a) … would you normally keep as a pet?

(b) … would you find on a farm?

(c) … are wild animals?

aper

avis

canis

caper

cervus

equus

fēlēs

leō

lupus

ovis

piscis

porcus

testūdō

ursus

vacca

[2] label the images

aper, -rī [2/m]

avis, -is [3/f]

canis, -is [3 m/f]

caper, -rī [2/m]

cervus, -ī [2/m]

equus, -ī [2/m]

fēlēs, -is [3/f]

leō, -ōnis [3/m]

lupus, -ī [2/m]

ovis, -is [3/f]

piscis, -is [3/m]

porcus, -ī [2/m]

testūdō, -inis [3/f]

ursus, -ī [2/m]

vacca, -ae [1/f]

____________________

[1]

(a) avis; canis; fēlis; piscis; testūdō

(b) caper; equus; ovis; porcus; vacca

(c) aper; cervus; leō; lupus; ursus

[2]

12.03.26: Maple tree tapping

Follow-up on a previous post. You don’t need to see a lot to find out a lot … and not just about maple tree tapping.

Referring to: 

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/920664230544846

Thanks to Magister Andrews for posting this because it can be used at different levels.

(1) Follow the video and try to work out what he is saying. Listen to his accurate, clear and slowly delivered commentary.

(2) Look at the transcript below and the translation.

(3) Read through the notes which show you that, even in a short piece of Latin, there are features which occur at different stages in learning the language.

Ecce arbor. | Look! A tree.

Haec arbor est acer. | This tree is a maple.

Acer est. │ It’s a maple tree.

Et ecce! | And look!

In acere est forāmen. | In the maple there is a hole.

Forāmen fodī in acere. | I’ve drilled a hole in the maple.

Cūr forāmen fodī in acere? | Why have I drilled a hole in the maple?

Forāmen fodī quia succum aceris volō. | I've drilled the hole because I want the sap of the maple.

Forāmen fodī ut succum aceris extraham. | I've drilled the hole so that I may draw out the sap of the maple.

____________________

extrahō, -ere [3]: extract

fodiō, -ere [3-iō]: (Classical Latin) dig; mine; (here) drill

succus, -ī [2/m]: juice; sap

succulentus, -a, -um: juicy > English derivative: succulent

____________________

There are three key features in this short video, and you’ll see that I’ve titled each one according to a level i.e. it isn’t a question of trying to ‘know’ it all at the same time but to become familiar with ideas depending on where you are precisely in Latin.

Level 1

Latin nouns are grouped according to declensions based on the endings that they share.

Grammar books and vocabulary lists give you the information in slightly different ways, but this is how they are done in all posts in the group:

succus, -ī [2/m]: juice; sap

The -ī is the genitive singular of the noun, and listing that matters because, and this is only an example, nouns ending in -us may belong to different declensions; you will not be able to work that out from the nominative case alone:

succus: 2nd declension

pectus: 3rd declension

exercitus: 4th declension

However, only second declension nouns have a genitive singular in -ī: that alone tells you the declension, but I reinforce it by indicating the declension and the gender [2(nd) declension / m(asculine)]

Here is another example:

puella, -ae [1/f]: girl

The genitive singular is -ae = 1st declension + abbreviated information [1(st) declension / f(eminine)]

That is the only information you need about a noun: from that information all the other forms can be created.

You’ll see that only the genitive singular ending is given in both examples: -ī / -ae; there is no need to note the word in full because all that is changing is the ending i.e.

succus > succī

puella > puellae

Level 1+

i.e. be familiar with 1st and 2nd declensions before you move on … and up:

[i] Magister Andrews includes 3rd declension nouns; 3rd declension nouns have their own genitive singular ending in -is:

arbor, -is [3/f]: tree; again, simply the genitive case ending is given

acer, -is [3/n]: maple tree

succum aceris volō │ I want the sap of the maple tree

In acere est forāmen │ There’s a hole in the maple tree

[ii] Now look at the next one:

forāmen, forāminis [3/n]: hole

The genitive is still -is but the stem of the noun has changed: forāmin-; once you have that stem, all the other 3rd declension endings will be added to it. That is a common feature of 3rd declension nouns and there is a large number of them. When I list those with stem changes, I write it in full, for example:

nox, noctis [3/f]: night; the stem of the noun is noct-

The stem changes are not as random as they first seem, and there are many posts on the topic in the group. All of them are available in the files section:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/750844210860183

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/750845270860077

Level 3+

A taste of things to come …

Forāmen fodī ut succum aceris extraham.

I've drilled the hole so that I (may) draw out the sap of the maple.

This is an example of the subjunctive, a lengthy and sprawling topic that is usually left to the end of Latin grammar books. The group will be looking at it in detail soon.

Here the subjunctive is used to express a purpose and there are often ‘markers’: ut (literally: so that / in order that). In this example, it could equally be translated as: I drilled the hole to draw out the sap … but, when dealing with the subjunctive – especially at the early stages – it is better to stick as close as possible to the literal meaning.

28.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [77] dependent uses [8] concessive clauses (2) quamquam; quamvīs [ii] practice

Complete the quotations with the verbs listed below each exercise.

Remember: quamquam + the indicative; quamvīs + subjunctive.

Note also the different ways in which both quamvīs and quamquam can be translated to convey the concessive idea.

[1]

[i] Although you may be without your mind, without your senses, …

Quamvīs enim sine mente, sine sēnsū __________ … (Cicero)

[ii] He will speak against me in such a way, however ingenious he may be …

Ita contrā mē ille dicet, quamvīs __________ ingeniōsus (Cicero)

[iii] Although I love that woman …

Quamquam ego istanc __________ (Plautus)

[iv] Therefore, those who listen to him, however incapable of speaking they themselves are …

Itaque eum quī audiunt, quamvīs ipsī īnfantēs __________, … (Cicero)

[v] Though I’m an impotent old man …

Quamquam cantherius __________, … (Plautus)

[vi] Although all virtues are equal and alike …

Quamquam __________ omnēs virtūtēs aequālēs et parēs (Cicero)

[vii] Although I may be made of wood, …

Quamvīs __________ ligneus, … (Priapea)

[viii] Although I have nothing to do [ = there is no business for me] with that fellow …

Quamquam cum istōc mihi negōtī nihil __________ (Plautus)

[ix] Although you are angry with me …

Quamquam tū īrāta __________ mihi (Plautus)

[x] And by Hercules, although I love [ = we love] our Gnaeus* … (Cicero); *Pompey

Et mehercule, quamvīs __________ Gnaeum nostrum, … (Cicero)

amēmus; amō; es; est; sim; sint; sīs; sit; sum; sunt

[2]

[i] This place here at our house, although you may arrive suddenly, is always available.

Locus hīc apud nōs, quamvīs subitō __________, semper liber est (Plautus)

[ii] He is by no means rich to me, although he possesses many things.

Nēquāquam mihi dīves est, quamvīs multa __________ (Rutilius)

[iii] Although the matter does not please me …

Quamvīs rēs mihi nōn __________, … (Cicero)

[iv] Although the bright girl may call back a thousand times to the traveling one …

Quamvīs candida mīliēs puella euntem __________ (Catullus)

[v] Although you understand nothing, nevertheless nothing can be enjoyable for you

Quamvīs nihil __________, tamen nihil tibi potest esse iūcundum (Cicero)

[vi] Although / however much those domestic enemies do not want this …

Quamvīs hoc istī hostēs domesticī __________, … (Cicero)

[vii] Amiable as he may have been in keeping with his friends …

Quamvīs cōmis in amīcīs tuendīs __________, … (Cicero)

[viii] Although we gave / have given strict instructions to the envoys …

Quamvīs sevēra lēgātīs mandāta __________, … (Cicero)

dederīmus; fuerit; nōlint; placeat; possideat; revocet; sapiās; veniās

[3]

[i] Although that will be unpleasant for me for three days

Quamquam istud mihi __________ molestum trīduom (Plautus)

[ii] I’ll now go into this harlot’s house nomatter if she is in a rage with me

Nunc ībō intrō ad hanc meretrīcem quamquam __________ mihi (Plautus)

[iii] Although, unwillingly, I will do without you.

Quamquam invīta tē __________ (Plautus)

[iv] Now I’ve got to be a good woman unwillingly, even if I don’t want to be.

Nunc mihi bonae necessumst [necessum est] esse ingrātiīs quamquam esse __________ (Plautus)

[v] Although my master had ordered me to stay here, it’s settled: I’d rather look for trouble with profit.

Quamquam hic manēre mē erus sēsē __________; certum est, malam rem potius quaeram cum lucrō (Plautus)

[vi] Being a slave has not been very troublesome, though:

Quamquam nōn multum __________ molesta servitus (Plautus)

[vii] This man did his duty, when he confessed the truth to you, although / much as I wanted to hide my nobility carefully.

Fēcit officium hic suom, cum tibi est cōnfessus vērum, quamquam __________ sēdulō meam nōbilitātem occultāre (Plautus)

[viii] Even though you are devoted Vulcan, do you want us to burn our house down, all for your dinner or your pay? 

Quamquam Volcānō __________, cēnaene causā aut tuae mercēdis grātiā nōs nostrās aedīs postulās combūrere? (Plautus)

carēbō; erit; fuit; iusserat; nōlō; studēs; suscēnset; voluī

____________________

[1]

[i] sīs

[ii] sit

[iii] amō

[iv] sint

[v] sum

[vi] sunt

[vii] sim

[viii] est

[ix] es

[x] amēmus

[2]

[i] veniās

[ii] possideat

[iii] placeat

[iv] revocet

[v] sapiās

[vi] nōlint

[vii] fuerit

[viii] dederīmus

[3]

[i] erit

[ii] suscēnset

[iii] carēbō

[iv] nōlō

[v] iusserat

[vi] fuit

[vii] voluī

[viii] studēs

28.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [76] dependent uses [8] concessive clauses (1) quamquam; quamvīs [i]

In addition to cum with the subjunctive, Latin has a range of other conjunctions that can introduce concessive clauses. Some of these conjunctions are followed by [1] the indicative of the verb, and some by [2] the subjunctive:

[1] with the indicative

quamquam: although; and yet

Examples

In the quotations below, note also that tamen (nevertheless; still) is frequently used to reinforce the concessive idea. Translators may not specifically render tamen, since it adds nothing to the meaning beyond emphasis, but it is included here.

Quamquam iam tē ipsum exspectō [present indicative], tamen istī puerō, … dā ponderōsam aliquam epistulam (Cicero)

• Although I am now waiting for you yourself, nevertheless give this man of mine a weighty letter.

Quae quamquam exigua sunt [present indicative], tamen, quoniam placet, exspectēmus (Cicero)

• And although these things are trivial, nevertheless, since it pleases you, we will wait.

Quamquam mihi ista omnia iam addicta vastitātī videntur [present indicative; passive] (Cicero)  

• Although all these now seem doomed to destruction.

Quamquam nēmō putābat [imperfect indicative] propter Clōdiānum negōtium mē illī amīcum esse dēbēre, tamen tantus fuit amor … (Cicero) 

• Although no one thought that, because of the Clodian affair, I ought to be friendly to him, nevertheless my affection was so great …

Multās ūnō tempore accēpī epistulās tuās; quae mihi, quamquam recentiōra audiēbam [imperfect indicative] ex iīs, quī ad mē veniēbant, tamen erant iūcunda (Cicero) 

• I’ve received many of your letters at the same time, and although I’ve been hearing more recent news from those who’ve been coming to me, still they were delightful.

Quamquam vidēbātur sē nōn graviter habēre [imperfect indicative; passive], tamen sum sollicitus (Cicero)

• Although it seemed that he was not seriously ill, nevertheless / still I am anxious.

Eō igitur mittēs ...quamquam ipse iam iamque aderō [future indicative] (Cicero)

• You will send (it / the letter) there, although I myself shall be there almost directly.

Quamquam ad mē scrīpsit [perfect indicative] iam Rhodō Posīdōnius … (Cicero)

• Although Posidonius has already written to me from Rhodes …

Maximē autem mē angit ratiō reliquōrum meōrum. Quae quamquam explicāta sunt [perfect indicative; passive], tamen, … conturbor… (Cicero)

• But the arranging of my balances worries me the most, and although they have been put straight, I am still anxious …

Quamquam ille pāstor Īdaeus Menelāum sōlum contempserat [pluperfect indicative] … (Cicero)

• Although that shepherd of Ida had slighted Menelaus alone …

Fuit apud mē Lamia … epistulamque ad mē attulit missam sibi ā Caesare. Quae quamquam ante data erat [pluperfect indicative; passive] quam illae Diocharīna … tamen plane declarabat …  

• (Cicero) Lamia was with me … and he brought me a letter sent to him from Caesar; and although it had been sent earlier than those of Diochares, it still plainly asserted …

[2] with the subjunctive

The word quamvīs has two different uses, and so you need to distinguish them. First, make a comparison between [i] and [ii] below:

[i] quīvīs, quaevīs, quidvīs (quodvīs) is an indefinite adjective or pronoun meaning ‘whoever; whatever; whichever’ or ‘any you please’ and was discussed here:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/09/081225-level-3-indefinites-18-vis-libet.html

dīcere hīc quidvīs licet (Plautus)

• Now one can talk freely [ = say whatever one wants]

ō Cupīdō, quantus es. nam tū quemvīs cōnfīdentem facile tuīs factīs facis (Plautus)

• O Cupid, how great you are! For with your actions you easily embolden whomever you want

Note this last example; quamvīs is the accusative singular of the indefinite adjective conveying indifference of choice:

Sī bovem aut aliam quamvīs quadrupedem serpēns momorderit … (Cato)

• If a snake has bitten an ox or any other four-footed animal.

This is not the same as quamvīs acting as a conjunction which is indeclinable and means ‘although’; it is followed by a verb in the subjunctive:

[ii] quamvīs + subjunctive

Quamvīs prūdēns ad cōgitandum sīs [present subjunctive], … (Cicero) 

• Although you are careful in your judgement …

Examples

Dē Drūsī hortīs, quamvīs ab iīs abhorreās [present subjunctive], … tamen eō cōnfugiam (Cicero) 

• As for the gardens of Drusus, although you shrink from them … I will nevertheless take refuge there.

… quae quamvīs contemnātur [present subjunctive; passive] ab eīs… (Cicero)

• …and although it is despised by them …

Quamvīs nōn cūrārem [imperfect subjunctive], quid in Hispāniā fieret … (Cicero) 

• Although I did not care what would happen in Spain …

Quamvīs enim tū magna et mihi iūcunda scrīpserīs [perfect subjunctive] dē D. Brūtī adventū … (Cicero)

• For although you have written great and pleasing things to me about the arrival of D. Brutus …

Quamvīs magna ad Postumum ab eō pecūnia pervēnisset [pluperfect subjunctive]  … (Cicero)

• Although a large sum of money had come to Postumus from him.

[3] The ‘default’ translation of quamquam and quamvīs is ‘although’, but the idea may be translated in other ways:

Sed sint quamvīs bonī, nōn sunt meliōrēs quam nōs (Cicero)

• But although they are loyal / However loyal they are, they are not better than us [ = me].

Quamvīs scelerātī illī fuissent (Cicero)

literally: although those men had been / might have been guilty

> However guilty those men might have been

Context and style will determine the most appropriate rendering.

Quamvīs sit magna, tamen eam vincēs (Cicero)

• Although it is / may be great, … / However great it may be … / Let it be as great as you choose (note here the inherent sense of quamvīs) … you will, nevertheless, conquer it.

28.07.26: Level 3+; Comenius (1658) CXLIII; the besieging of a city [2] vocabulary and notes [i]

The short Latin text involves considerable study, but it is useful since it incorporates a wide range of military vocabulary.

We will clarify, when necessary, how Charles Hoole, the translator of Comenius’ work expressed the terms in 1658 – including the use of Neo-Latin –  and compare them with Roman understanding.

This provides a way into exploring extracts from the Roman authors. You will notice in the quotations that descriptions of military action can be densely packed with specialist terms and so, as we progress, we will add important vocabulary.

Vocabulary discussed in this section is marked in bold.

Obsidium Urbis

Urbs passūra obsidiōnem prīmum prōvocātur per tūbicinem et invītātur ad dēditiōnem. Quod sī abnuat facere, oppugnātur ab obsidentibus et occupātur. Vel mūrōs per scālās trānscendendō, aut diruendō arietibus, aut dēmoliendō tormentīs, vel dirumpendō portās exōstrā, vel ēiaculandō globōs tormentāriōs ē mortāriīs (ballistīs) in urbem per ballistāriōs, quī latitant post gerrās, vel subvertendō cūniculīs per fossōrēs. Obsessī dēfendunt sē dē mūrīs ignibus, lapidibus, etc., aut ērumpunt. Urbs vī expugnāta diripitur, exciditur, interdum aequātur solō.

[1] vīs, vīs [3/f]: force; power; violence; (plural) strength

Nōn vī, sed verbō. │ Not by violence, but by the word.

The plural stem of this is vīr- (strength); the presence of the /r/ can be misread as vir, -ī [2/m]: man, but the meanings are completely different

mīlitēs Rōmānī virtūte vīribusque omnēs aliōs superāvērunt │ The Roman soldiers surpassed all others in courage and strength.

vīs is also an example of a defective noun which refers to a noun where not all the case endings are attested in Classical Latin (the genitive and dative singular are lacking in normal usage); the English verb “can” is defective since there is no infinitive “to can”

[2]

porta, -ae [1/f]: gate

scāla, -ae [1/f]: ladder

mūrus, -ī [2/m]: wall

tūbicen, -inis [3/m]: trumpeter

dēditiō, -ōnis [3/f]: surrender, capitulation

ignis, -is [3/m]: fire

lapis, lapidis [3/m]: stone

[2]

[i]

obsidium, -ī [2/n], or obsidiō, -ōnis [3/f]: siege

obses, obsidis [3 m/f]: hostage

Nouns derived from the verb: obsideō, -ēre, obsēdī, obsessus [2]: besiege 

(1) obsidēns, -ntis: present active participle i.e. ‘besieging’ > obsidēns, -entis [3/m]: besieger, i.e. the one who is besieging

(2) obsessus: perfect passive participle i.e. ‘having been besieged’ > obsessī, those who are besieged

____________________

Mnesilochust Alexander, quī erit exitiō reī patriae suae; is Helenam āvēxit, cuiā causā nunc faciō obsidium Īliō (Plautus)

• Mnesilochus is Alexander, who will be the destruction of his native city; he is the one that carried off Helen, on account of whom I am now laying siege to Ilium (Troy)

Obsidiō inde urbis et mūnītiōnēs; et interdum per occāsiōnem impetus oppidānōrum in Rōmānās statiōnēs proeliaque parva fieri (Livy)

• Then came the blockade of the town and the construction of siegeworks; and sometimes when the occasion allowed an attack by the townsfolk on the Roman outposts and skirmishes [literally: small battles] would take place.

exitium, -ī [2/n]: destruction

mūnītiō, mūnītiōnis [3/f]: [i] defending, fortifying; [ii] defence, fortification

impetus, -ūs [4/m]: attack; impetus + in + acc: an attack on …

statiō, statiōnis [3/f]: (Military) post; outpost; station

proelium, -ī [2/n]: battle

27.07.26: Level 2; Comenius (1658) CXXII; city [2]

Complete the Latin text with the words listed below. Note: in this second part, a couple of words are not included in the exercise itself since they are very rare.

[Not numbered in the image:

The entrance into a city │ __________ in urbeṃ]

is made out of the suburbs (12) | fit ex __________ (12)

through a gate (13) | per __________ (13)

over the bridge (14). | super __________ (14).

The gate hath a portcullis (15) | Porta habet __________ (15)

a drawbridge (16) | __________ (16)

two-leaved doors (17) | __________ (17)

locks and bolts, as also bars (18). | clāustra & repāgula, ut & vectēs (18).

In the suburbs are gardens (19) | In suburbiīs sunt __________  (19)

and garden-houses (20) | & __________  (20)

and also burying-places (21). | ut & __________  (21).

catarāctās; coemētēria; hortī; ingressus; pontem; pontem versātilem; portam; suburbāna; suburbiō; valvās

Vocabulary and notes

clāustrum, -ī [2/n]: lock, bar

coemētērium, -ī [2/n]: cemetery, burial-place

hortus, -ī [2/m]: garden

ingressus, -ūs [4/m]: entrance

pons, pontis [3/m]: bridge

pons versātilis: the adjective refers to something that is moveable or revolving; (here) drawbridge

porta, -ae [1/f]: gate

repāgulum, -ī [2/n]: bar, bolt

suburbānum, -ī [2/n]: suburban house; in the Classical period it refers specifically to a residence outside Rome as opposed to vīlla, -ae [1/f]: country residence; estate

suburbānō facile cāreō (Cicero)

• I can easily do without a suburban residence.

suburbium, -ī [2/n]: suburb(s)

in suburbium … īre nōn sum ausus (Cicero)

• I … did not dare to go into the suburbs

valva, -ae [1/f]: door-leaf; (pl.) valvae: double doors (also in domestic dwellings)

[image: depiction of valvae from a Roman fresco]

catarācta, -ae [1/f]: [i] portcullis [ii] waterfall; floodgate; sluice

vectis, -is [3/m]: bar, lever

Livy describes soldiers opening a gate:

cataractā deiectā clausa erat; eam partim vectibus levant

• it was closed by a portcullis that had been let down; some raise this with levers

sed amplius prōdest, quod invēnit antīquitās, ut ante portam addātur prōpugnāculum, in cuius ingressū pōnitur cataracta, quae ānulīs ferreīs ac fūnibus pendet (Vegetius)

• But what antiquity has devised is of still greater advantage: that a defensive work be added in front of the gate, at whose entrance a portcullis is set, which hangs from iron rings and ropes.

The Modern English derivative cataract is from the first meaning of waterfall, or floodgate e.g. the six cataracts of the Nile, narrow strips of water between Aswan and Khartoum.

• pervenit per montēs ad cataractam ab eōque sē praecipitāns per septentriōnālem pervenit inter Elephantida et Syēnēn Thēbāicōsque in Aegyptum campōs et ibi Nīlus appellātur (Vitruvius)

It reaches the Cataract through the mountains, and rushing down northwards from there, it comes between Elephantine and Syene into the Theban plains of Egypt, where it is called the Nile.

Referring to water management, Pliny the Younger writes:

expedītum tamen erat cataractīs aquae cursum temperāre (Pliny the Younger)

• However, it was easy to regulate the flow of water by means of floodgates.

Now obsolete in English, cataract could refer to a portcullis, a grating lowered into place. From this we have the term used in ophthalmology cataract, a clouding of the lens of the eye.

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Cataracta.html

cataracts of the Nile

26.07.26: Level 1; Comenius (1658) CXXIII; the inward parts of a city [2]

Comenius writes the text and illustrates it from a 17^th century perspective. Below are images, most of which are Roman:

25.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [75] dependent uses [7] cum-clauses (5) concessive (ii) practice

Complete the Latin sentences with the verbs listed below:

[i] Although he is good, he is not wise.

Cum __________ bonus, nōn est sapiēns.

[ii] Although the old man does not have a lot of food, he nevertheless invites friends to dinner.

Cum senex multum cibum __________, amīcōs tamen ad cēnam invītat.

[iii] Although you do not want to come with me, nevertheless you have to do this.

Cum mēcum venīre __________, hoc tamen facere dēbēs.

[iv] Although you did not want to come with me, nevertheless you had to do this.

Cum mēcum venīre __________, hoc tamen facere dēbēbās.

[v] Although he knew about the affair, he nevertheless said nothing.

Cum dē rē __________, nihil tamen dīxit.

[vi] Although the farmer was poor, he was nevertheless pious and happy.

Cum agricola pauper __________, erat pius tamen et contentus.

[vii] He did nothing to help me, although he could / was able to.

Nihil mē adiūvit, cum __________. (Cicero)

[viii] Although the forces of the enemy were greater, the Romans nevertheless overcame them.

Cum cōpiae hostium __________ maiōrēs, Rōmānī tamen eās vīcērunt.

[ix] Turnus, although he was fighting very bravely, was nevertheless defeated.

Turnus, cum fortissimē __________, tamen victus est.

[x] But although I had done everything, I was not able to recover his goodwill.

Sed, cum omnia __________, … eam voluntātem eius … recūperāre nōn potuī. (Cicero)

[xi] Although I had been asked, nevertheless I did not reply.

Cum __________, tamen nōn respondī.

[xii] Cicero, although he was / had been born in a small town, nevertheless lived in Rome.

Cicerō, cum in oppidō parvō __________, Rōmae tamen vīvēbat.

essent; esset; fēcissem; nōn habeat; nātus esset; nōlīs; nōllēs; posset; pugnāret; rogātus essem; scīret; sit

____________________

[i] sit
[ii] nōn habeat
[iii] nōlīs
[iv] nōllēs
[v] scīret
[vi] esset
[vii] posset
[viii] essent
[ix] pugnāret
[x] fēcissem
[xi] rogātus essem
[xii] nātus esset

25.07.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [74] dependent uses [7] cum-clauses (4) concessive (i)

Look at the following sentence.

[A] He is lazy ¦ but [B] he gets good results.

[A] He is lazy. [B] However / nevertheless / despite that, he gets good results.

There are two opposing ideas. [A] creates the expectation that he would not get good results, but [B] shows that, despite being lazy, this has not prevented him from achieving them.

This same idea can be expressed using what is known in grammar as a concessive construction. In English, concession can be expressed in several ways.

As a concessive clause:

• Although he is lazy, he gets good results.
• Even if he is lazy, he gets good results.
• Despite / in spite of the fact that he is lazy, he gets good results.

As a concessive phrase:

• Despite being lazy, he gets good results.

English may also reinforce concession by adding words such as nevertheless. In this example, the second part of the sentence overrides or qualifies the first.

• While we welcome the Prime Minister’s statement, we nevertheless feel that he has not gone far enough.

“Concession” refers to acceptance / recognition of a fact / admission that something is true:

While we welcome the Prime Minister’s statement …

…but that admission is then set aside in a specific way; here, it does not prevent a criticism from being made:

• … we nevertheless feel …

Latin conveys this idea in a number of ways. In this post we look at one:

Apart from expressing cause and circumstance, cum + subjunctive can also express although.

[a] Frequently this is reinforced with tamen (nevertheless), making the concessive sense clear.

Cum puellam amāret, tamen ex urbe abiit. │ Although he loved the girl, he nevertheless left the city.

Militēs, cum montēs vīdissent, tamen gāvīsī sunt. │ The soldiers, although they had seen the mountains, nevertheless rejoiced.

Cum prīmī ōrdinēs concidissent, tamen ācerrimē reliquī resistēbant. (Caesar) │ Though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigorously.

[b] However, tamen may not be used in the sentence and so careful reading – and thinking – in context is needed to identify whether the clause is concessive:

Cum hostēs fortēs essent, Rōmānī vīcērunt. │ Although the enemy were brave, the Romans won.

A way of ‘testing’ whether the sentence is expressing a concessive idea is mentally to reword it:

• The enemies were brave, but the Romans won.
• The enemies were brave. However / nevertheless / despite that, the Romans won.

i.e. despite the fact that the enemies were brave, that did not prevent the Romans from winning.

Think about it: “When / since the enemies were brave, the Romans won” does not make sense!

Examples:

[i] Cum multum labōrāverit, parum profēcit.

Think: he has worked hard, ¦ but he has made little progress

> Although he has worked hard, he has made little progress.

[ii] Cum graviter vulnerātus esset, pugnāvit.

Think: he had been seriously wounded. However / nevertheless / despite that, he fought.

> Although he had been seriously wounded, he fought.

Would any other translation of those two examples make sense?

Since he has worked hard, he has made little progress.

Since he had been seriously injured, he fought.

No, they wouldn’t.