28.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [11]; on water [i]

The topic of shipping was covered extensively in earlier posts:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/topic%3A%20ships

15.06.25: topic; ships [1]; Comenius LXXXVIII; ships; a Galley (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/150625-topic-ships-1-comenius-lxxxviii.html

15.06.25: topic; ships [2]; Comenius LXXXVIII; ships; a Galley (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/150625-topic-ships-2-comenius-lxxxviii.html

15.06.25: topic; ships [3]; Caesar on shipbuilding

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/150625-topic-ships-3-caesar-on.html

18.06.25: topic; ships [4]; Comenius XC; a Merchant ship (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/180625-topic-ships-4-comenius-xc.html

18.06.25: topic; ships [5]; Comenius XC; a Merchant ship (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/180625-topic-ships-5-comenius-xc.html

20.06.25: topic; ships [6]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/200625-topic-ships-6-comenius-xci-ship.html

20.06.25: topic; ships [7]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/200625-topic-ships-7-comenius-xci-ship.html

23.06.25: topic; ships [8]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (3)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/230625-topic-ships-8-comenius-xci-ship.html

23.06.25: topic; ships [9]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (4); terra austrālis: the southern land

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/230625-topic-ships-9-comenius-xci-ship.html

26.06.25: topic; ships [10]; Comenius; CXLII; the Sea-Fight

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/260625-topic-ships-10-comenius-cxlii.html

[1] nāvigium, -ī [2/n]: vessel; ship; boat i.e. a general term for any form of transport on water whether it be a ship with sails or a boat that is rowed. Translations will vary dependent upon context. All of the following are from Cicero’s correspondence with Atticus:

Dē puerīs quid agam? parvōne nāvigiō committam?  

• What shall I do about the boys? Shall I entrust them to a small boat?

Prōrsus dissolūtum offendī nāvigium vel potius dissipātum.

• In fact I found a ship breaking up, or rather already in wreckage

Nāvigia colligēbat

• He was collecting vessels

suntque nāvigia praetereā lūculenta

• and, besides, there are some excellent ships

In the same way that English distinguishes size (but not function) of a vessel by referring simply either to ship or boat, so too does Latin differentiate:

[2] nāvis, -is [3/f]: the general term for a ship although, dependent upon context, it may translate as ‘boat’ if a smaller vessel is being described:

Nāvis, quae in flūmine magna est, in marī parvula est (Seneca the Younger)

• A ship, which is big in a river, is tiny in a sea.

Latin will use adjectives to specify the functions of different types of large craft:

[3] nāvis onerāria: merchant / cargo ship

[4] nāvis longa: [lit: long ship] battle ship (especially with oars)

Here, Caesar refers to both types:

Nāvibus circiter LXXX onerāriīs coāctīs contractīsque, quot satis esse ad duās trānsportandās legiōnēs exīstimābat, quod praetereā nāvium longārum habēbat quaestōrī, lēgātīs praefectīsque distribuit.

• After about eighty transport ships had been assembled and brought together, which he considered sufficient for conveying two legions across, he assigned whatever warships he had besides to the quaestor, the legates, and the prefects.

[5] nāvis āctuāria: fast transport ship

Note in this excerpt how the transport ships are adapted for the purpose of a naval battle:

nāvibus āctuāriīs quārum numerus erat satis magnus, magnitūdō nēquāquam satis iūsta ad proeliandum, rōstra imposuit. (Bellum Alexandrinum)

• he fitted rams onto fast transport ships, of which there was a sufficiently large number, whose size was by no means adequate for fighting

rōstrum, -ī [2/n]: the protruding ‘beak’ at the prow of a Roman ship designed to inflict damage during a naval conflict

[6] nāvis piscātōria: fishing boat

deinde in piscātōriā quīdam nāve rētibus opertī circumvectīque ita ad castra Rōmāna conlocūtīque cum trānsfugīs

• Then, covered with fishing nets in a fishing boat, certain men were carried around in this way to the Roman camp and conferred with the deserters;

[7] nāvicula, -ae [1/f]: small ship; little boat i.e. the diminutive form of nāvis indicated by the suffix -cula

adulēscentulus cum nāviculīs cuiusquemodī generis XXX, inibi paucīs rōstrātīs, profectus ab Uticā in Maurētāniam (Bellum Africum)

• the young man set out from Utica to Mauretania with thirty small boats of every kind, including a few beaked ones among them.

rostrātus, -a, -um: fitted with a rōstrum (see [5] above)

27.04.27: Level 3+ (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [20]: The Gauls appeal for help against the Germans

Hōc bellō confectō multī principēs, quī ad Caesarem ex Galliae cīvitātibus convēnerant, ita sunt locūtī: ‘concilium tōtīus Galliae convocētur; dē salūte omnium cum Caesare agant.’

Quibus rēbus dictīs, ‘Ariovistus, rex Germānōrum,’ inquit Divitiacus, ‘omnēs ex Galliā expellere constituit: itaque Caesar Aeduīs subveniat atque exercitūs Rōmānōs contrā Ariovistum dūcat: omnēs Gallī cōpiās adiungant.’ Hāc ōrātiōne habitā omnēs quī aderant auxilium a Caesare petēbant.

Language focus: subjunctive

Subjunctive usage: jussive subjunctive (1)

All five subjunctives are independent jussive subjunctives, expressing proposals or recommendations made by the Gallic leaders. In English they are often translated with “let …”.

concilium tōtīus Galliae convocētur: let an assembly of all Gaul be called.

dē salūte omnium cum Caesare agant: let them discuss with Caesar the welfare of all

itaque Caesar Aeduīs subveniat: let Caesar help the Aedui.

exercitūs Rōmānōs contrā Ariovistum dūcat: let him lead the Roman armies against Ariovistus

omnēs Gallī cōpiās adiungant: let all the Gauls join their forces

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20jussive

____________________

When this war had been brought to an end, many chiefs, who had come to Caesar from the states of Gaul, spoke as follows: “Let an assembly of the whole of Gaul be called; let them discuss with Caesar the welfare of all.”

After these things had been said, Divitiacus said, “Ariovistus, king of the Germans, has decided to drive everyone out of Gaul; therefore let Caesar help the Aedui and lead the Roman armies against Ariovistus; let all the Gauls join their forces.” When this speech had been delivered, all who were present sought help from Caesar.

26.04.27: Level 1-2 (review): Julia (a Latin Reader) [12] (2)

MŪSAE ET CICĀDAE (2)

Mūsae, simul ac in vallem dēscendērunt, carmina mīra et dīvīna cecinērunt. Argūtae sunt Mūsārum vōcēs, nec per tōtum orbem terrārum dulcior est sonitus quam cantus deārum; nōn tam suāviter avēs in summīs arboribus canunt, ubi vēre āera cantibus mulcent.

Mīrō sonitū dēlectātī sunt incolae. Diū Mūsae canēbant; diū incolae, cēterārum rērum immemorēs, stupēbant; nec ad cibum nec ad quiētem tempus capiēbant. Multōs diēs, multās noctēs deae canēbant, et māne, ubi Aurōra croceum Tīthōnī lectum relinquit, et sērō, ubi vesper stēllās in caelum redūcit. Ita incolae cēnae prandiīque immemorēs, mīrum sonitum audiēbant. Itaque propter carminum dīvīnōrum amōrem in diēs languēscēbant.

Tandem Mūsae incolās iam tenuissimōs animadvertērunt, et misericordiae plēnae in cicādās viridēs convertērunt. Cicādae igitur, etiam nunc carminum dīvīnōrum memorēs, tōtum diem cantant.

[i]

aēr, aēris [3/m]: air

Aurōra, -ae [1/f]: Aurora, goddess of the dawn

avis, -is [3/f]: bird

cantus, -ūs [4/m]: song

diēs, -ēī [5/m]: day; indiēs: from day to day

quiēs, quiētis [3/f]: rest, quiet

sonitus, -ūs [4/m]: sound

tempus, -oris [3/n]: time

Tīthōnus, -ī [2/m]: Tithonus, husband of the dawn goddess

vesper, -eris [3/m]: evening

[ii]

immemor, -oris: unmindful, forgetful

tenuis, -e: thin

[iii]

canō, canere [3]: sing

capiō, capere [3]: take

languescō, -ere [3]: languish, faint

mulceō, -ēre [2]: soothe

relinquō, -ere [3]: leave

stupeō, -ēre [2]: be amazed

[iv]

serō: late

suāviter: sweetly

____________________

As soon as they descended into the valley, the Muses sang wonderful and divine songs. The voices of the Muses are piercing, and throughout the whole world there is no sound sweeter than the song of the goddesses; nor do birds sing so sweetly in the tops of trees, when in spring they soothe the air with their songs.

The inhabitants were delighted by the wonderful sound. For a long time the Muses sang; for a long time the inhabitants, forgetful of other things, were amazed; they took no time for either food or rest. For many days and many nights the goddesses sang, both in the morning, when Aurora leaves Tithonus’ saffron bed, and in the evening, when dusk brings the stars back into the sky. Thus the inhabitants, forgetful of dinner and lunch, listened to the wondrous sound. And so, because of their love for the divine songs, they grew weaker day by day.

At last the Muses noticed that the inhabitants had become very thin, and full of pity they transformed them into green cicadas. Therefore the cicadas, even now mindful of the divine songs, sing throughout the whole day.

25.04.27: Level 1; step-by-step; scaffolding [12] grammar notes (4) cases; accusative case singular and plural

The accusative case is used when the noun is the direct object of the sentence i.e. the action is being done to that noun.

Again, the endings of the accusative case depend on the declension to which the noun belongs:

[1] 1^st declension

nominative singular: -a

accusative singular: -am

nominative plural: -ae

accusative plural: -ās

Epistulam [singular] scrībō. | I’m writing a/the letter.

Epistulās [plural] scrībō. | I write (the) letters.

[2]

[a] 2^nd declension in -us

nominative singular: -us

accusative singular: -um

nominative plural: -ī

accusative plural: -ōs

Equum emō. | I’m buying a horse.

Equōs cūrō. | I take care of the horses.

[b] 2^nd declension in -um

The nominative and accusative singular endings are the same; the nominative and accusative plural endings are the same:

nominative singular: -um

accusative singular: -um

nominative plural: -a

accusative plural: -a

Ōvum edō. | I’m eating an egg.

Ōva edō. | I eat eggs.

LINKS

(1) 28.02.24: the accusative case (singular and plural) of first declension nouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/28_7.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/398913862719888

(2) 29.02.24: accusative case singular of first declension nouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/29.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399267342684540

(3) 29.02.24: accusative case plural of first declension nouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/29_7.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399307466013861

(4) 29.02.24: accusative singular and plural of second declension nouns in -us

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/29_63.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399373682673906

(5) 29.02.24: accusative singular and plural of 2nd declension masculine nouns

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399447592666515

(6) 29.02.24: leaving the easiest to last; the accusative singular and plural of 2nd declension neuter nouns in -um

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/29_11.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399534969324444

(7) 29.02.24: practice with the accusative case

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/1-answer-questions-in-full-sentences.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399480822663192

(7) 01.03.24: summary of the nominative and accusative case singular of 1st / 2nd declension nouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/blog-post_86.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399747519303189

(8) 01.03.24: summary of the nominative and accusative singular and plural of 1st / 2nd declension nouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/blog-post_94.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/399755895969018

24.04.27: Level 1; First Latin Lessons (14); 2nd declension; -us; the vocative case

Fīlius et Fīlia Agricolae

I: Agricola fīlium et fīliam habet. Fīlius agricolae domī manet, sed fīlia in scholā hieme est, et tum in oppidō cum amīcō benignō agricolae habitat. Agricola oppidum nōn amat, et fīliam hieme nōn saepe videt.

II: Aestāte puella domī manet. Agricola equōs habet, et fīliae equum bonum dat. Fīlia equōs nōn timet, et laeta est quod equum bonum habet. Māter puellae laeta est cum⁠ fīlia domī est. Fīlius agricolae nūllōs amīcōs in oppidō habet.

III: Tēctum amīcī agricolae in nostrō oppidō est. Ex fenestrā meā tēctum amīcī agricolae videō. Ibi fīlia agricolae hieme habitat. Amīcus agricolae parvum fīlium habet, sed nūllās fīliās habet.

IV: Amīcus meus equum bonum habet. Fīlius nautae poēta est. Fīliō nautae epistulam dō. Cornēlia fīliam habet, sed nūllōs fīliōs habet. Casa amīcī poētae in oppidō est.

(1) vocabulary

• equus, -ī [2/m]: horse
• fīlius, -ī [2/m]: son
• timet: (s)he / it fears
• videt: (s)he / it sees
• nūllus: no [= not any]; none
• domī: at home
• hieme: in winter

Image #1

(2) 2^nd declension nouns ending in -us

[i] 2^nd declension nouns ending in -us in the nominative case are almost always masculine.

• amīcus (nominative singular), -ī (genitive singular) [2(nd declension)/m(asculine)]: friend (male)
• equus -ī [2/m]: horse
• fīlius, -ī [2/m]: son

Image #2

[ii] declension:

(1) the endings are the same as nouns ending in -um apart from:

• the nominative singular [-us]
• the nominative plural [-ī]
• the accusative plural [-ōs]

(2) 2^nd declension nouns also have a separate ending for the vocative case [-e]; this will be discussed later in the unit

Singular

Nominative: -us

• Amīcus linguam Latīnam discit. | A friend is learning Latin.

Vocative: -e (see note [iii] below)*

• Salvē, (ō) amīce! | Hello, friend!

Genitive: -ī

• Tēctum amīcī videō. | I see a friend’s house.

Dative: -ō

• Amīcō pecūniam dō. | I give money to a friend.

Accusative: -um

• Amīcum videō. | I see a friend.

Ablative: -ō

• Cum amīcō ambulō. | I walk with a friend.

Plural

Nominative: -ī

• Amīcī linguam Latīnam discunt. | The friends are learning Latin.

Genitive: -ōrum

• Tēcta amīcōrum parva sunt. | The friends’ houses are small.

Dative: -īs

• Māter amīcīs pecūniam dat. | The mother gives money to the friends.

Accusative: -ōs

• Amīcōs nōn videt. | He does not see the friends.

Ablative: -īs

• Cum amīcīs in viā ambulō. | I walk with friends in the street.

*[iii] vocative case

(1) The vocative case is used when addressing people directly or attracting their attention, the equivalent of English: “Hello, John!” or “Mark, can you come here for a moment?”

(2) When males are addressed directly by name:

• -us changes to -e

Nominative: Mārcus est amīcus meus. | Marcus is my friend.

> Vocative:  Salvē, Marce! | Hello, Marcus!

• -ius changes to -ī

Nominative: Iūlius est agricola. | Julius is a farmer.

> Vocative: Cūrā ut valeās, Iūlī! | Take care, Iulius!

(3) The vocative case is also used with other masculine nouns in –(i)us that are not proper nouns i.e. they are not personal names, but they have a vocative in -e:

Nominative: amīcus (friend)

> Vocative: amīce

Nominative: socius (ally)

> Vocative: socie

An exception is fīlius (son) which has the same vocative ending as a proper noun ending in -ius:

Nominative: fīlius

> Vocative: fīlī

(4) Meus in the vocative case changes to mī:

Nominative: Iūlius est fīlius meus. | Julius is my son.

Vocative: Valē, fīlī mī! (or mī fīlī) | Farewell, my son!

(5) A noun in the vocative case may be preceded by an exclamatory ō! (like the English ‘oh’).

Nominative: Mārcus est amīcus meus. | Marcus is my friend.

> Vocative: Ō amīce mī! Salvē!  |  Oh, my friend! Hello!

(6) The vocative case does not have separate endings in any other noun declensions, and there are no separate endings in the plural at all: in all other noun types, the nominative is the same as the vocative. The vocative does occur in adjectives ending in -us which we will look again when we review adjective endings.

Note: some online sources list a vocative form for all declensions. This is distracting because it suggests there may be other vocative forms; with a handful of exceptions (e.g. nouns of Greek origin) there are not.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/declensions-and-cases-1-nominative.html

[iv] 2^nd declension nouns ending in -ius may form the genitive singular in -iī or -ī, e.g. gladius (sword) > gladiī or gladī.

[v] 1^st / 2^nd declension masculine adjectives have the same endings:

Amīcus agricolae ¦ parvum fīlium ¦ habet. | The farmer’s friend has a small son.

Amīcus meus ¦ equum bonum ¦ habet. | My friend has a good horse.

Cum amīcō benignō habitat. | He lives with a kind friend.

Fīlius ¦ nūllōs amīcōs ¦ in oppidō habet. | The son has no friends in the town.

____________________

I: The farmer has a son and a daughter. The farmer’s son stays at home, but the daughter is at school in winter, and then she lives in the town with the farmer’s kind friend. The farmer does not like the town, and in winter he does not often see his daughter.

II: In summer the girl stays at home. The farmer has horses, and he gives his daughter a good horse. The daughter is not afraid of the horses, and she is happy because she has a good horse. The girl’s mother is happy when her daughter is at home. The farmer’s son has no friends in the town.

III: The house of the farmer’s friend is in our town. From my window I see the house of the farmer’s friend. There the farmer’s daughter lives in winter. The farmer’s friend has a small son, but he has no daughters.

IV: My friend has a good horse. The sailor’s son is a poet. I give a letter to the sailor’s son. Cornelia has a daughter, but she has no sons. The house of the poet’s friend is in the town.

23.04.27: Level 4; literature; Vulgate: The Parable of the Good Samaritan [Luke 10:25–37] (1) comprehension

[25] Et ecce quīdam lēgisperītus surrēxit tentāns illum, et dīcēns: Magister, quid faciendō vītam aeternam possidēbō?

[26] At ille dīxit ad eum: In lēge quid scrīptum est? quōmodo legis?

[27] Ille respondēns dīxit: Dīligēs Dominum Deum tuum ex tōtō corde tuō, et ex tōtā animā tuā, et ex omnibus virtūtibus tuīs, et ex omnī mente tuā: et proximum tuum sīcut tēipsum.

[28] Dīxitque illī: Rēctē respondistī: hoc fac, et vīvēs.

[29] Ille autem volēns iūstificāre sēipsum, dīxit ad Iēsum: Et quis est meus proximus?

[30] Suscipiēns autem Iēsūs, dīxit: Homō quīdam dēscendēbat ab Ierusālem in Ierīchō, et incīdit in latrōnēs, quī etiam dēspoliāvērunt eum: et plāgīs impositīs abiērunt sēmivīvō relictō.

[31] Accidit autem ut sacerdōs quīdam dēscenderet eādem viā: et vīsō illō praeterīvit.

[32] Similiter et Lēvīta, cum esset secus locum, et vidēret eum, pertrānsiit.

[33] Samarītānus autem quīdam iter faciēns, vēnit secus eum: et vidēns eum, misericordiā mōtus est.

[34]  Et appropiāns alligāvit vulnera eius, īnfundēns oleum et vīnum: et impōnēns illum in iūmentum suum, dūxit in stabulum, et cūram eius ēgit.

[35] Et alterā diē prōtulit duōs dēnāriōs, et dedit stabulāriō, et ait: Cūram illīus habē: et quodcumque superērogāverīs, ego cum redierō reddam tibi.

[36] Quis hōrum trium vidētur tibi proximus fuisse illī, quī incīdit in latrōnēs?

[37] At ille dīxit: Quī fēcit misericordiam in illum. Et ait illī Iēsūs: Vāde, et tū fac similiter.

(1) Note the line number(s) referring to:

being attacked by robbers _____

being moved by pity _____

being specifically told to do something _____ / _____

giving somebody money _____

giving the correct answer _____

Jesus being tested _____

obtaining eternal life _____

people who pass by _____ / _____

placing somebody on a donkey _____

what the Law actually states _____

(2)

[i] Who begins this conversation? (1)

[ii] How does Jesus respond to the first question asked? (1)

(3)

[i] Which line marks the beginning of the parable? (1)

[ii] What question prompts Jesus to begin the parable? (1)

(4) Which one word in the passage emphasises that the man was very seriously beaten up? (1)

(5) Line 36: Quis hōrum trium vidētur tibi proximus fuisse illī, quī incīdit in latrōnēs? To which three people is Jesus referring? (3)

(6) How are the man’s wounds treated? (3)

____________________

(1)

being attacked by robbers: [30] incīdit in latrōnēs

being moved by pity: [33] misericordiā mōtus est

being specifically told to do something: [28] hoc fac; [37]: fac similiter

giving somebody money: [35] prōtulit duōs dēnāriōs, et dedit stabulāriō

giving the correct answer: [28] Rēctē respondistī

Jesus being tested: [25] tentāns illum

obtaining eternal life: [25] quid faciendō vītam aeternam possidēbō

people who pass by: [31] sacerdōs … praeterīvit;  [32]: Lēvīta … pertrānsiit

placing somebody on a donkey: [34] impōnēns illum in iūmentum suum

what the Law actually states: [27] Dīligēs … tēipsum

(2)

[i] A lawyer / expert in the law | lēgisperītus

[ii] He asks him what is written in the law / how he interprets the law (any one). | In lēge quid scrīptum est? quōmodo legis?

(3)

[i] line 30: “Homō quīdam…”

[ii] line 29: And who is my neighbour? | Et quis est meus proximus?

(4) sēmivīvō: (literally) half alive (or can be rephrased in this context: half dead)

(5) a priest (sacerdōs); a Levite (Lēvīta); a Samaritan (Samaritānus)

(6) bandaged (1); oil and wine (1) poured on them (1) | alligāvit vulnera eius (1) īnfundēns (1) oleum et vīnum (1)

22.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [10]: heavy duty vehicles (3) carrus

[3] carrus, -ī [2/m]: wagon; vehicle for transportation of freight

As we continue to move through the topic of transport, you will see that a mere dictionary definition – although sufficient for translation purposes – does not always convey nuance of meaning, but it may be determined when reading in context.

Its function is clearly indicated in this first quotation from Caesar’s description of the Gauls’ preparations for a departure, iūmenta referring to the animals that would pull the wagons:

auctōritāte Orgetorigis permōtī cōnstituērunt ea quae ad proficīscendum pertinērent comparāre, iūmentōrum et carrōrum quam maximum numerum coemere (Caesar)

• deeply moved by the authority of Orgetorix, they decided to prepare those things which pertained to setting out, [and] to buy up as great a number as possible of pack animals and wagons

The image of animals pulling cartloads of equipment generally conveys slow movement. However, in the following extract, the wagons are able to keep pace with troops that do not have heavy baggage:

magna enim multitūdō carrōrum etiam expedītōs sequī Gallōs cōnsuēvit (Aulus Hirtius)

• For a large multitude of wagons was accustomed to follow the Gauls, even when they were lightly equipped.

Most noticeably, this description does not convey a slow advance but one so deafening that it terrifies the Roman horses:

essedīs carrīsque superstāns armātus hostis ingentī sonitū equōrum rotārumque advēnit et īnsolitōs eius tumultus Rōmānōrum conterruit equōs (Livy)

• standing erect in chariots and wagons, armed enemies arrived with a mighty clattering of hoofs and wheels, frightening the horses of the Romans with the unfamiliar din.

In other words, unlike plaustrum and serrācum – both of which also refer to vehicles for freight transportation, but are not associated with any sense of ‘pace’ or speed – the carrus certainly appears to have had greater manoeuvrability.

21.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [9]: heavy duty vehicles (2) serrācum

serrācum (sarrācum), -ī [2/n]: cart; wagon

Why should an entire post be devoted to a single word? Serrācum, like plaustrum, is most often defined as a cart or wagon. It would be perfectly legitimate to leave it at that since it occurs infrequently. However, in ‘exploring’ vocabulary – especially everyday objects about which the Romans said little – the noun serves as an example of being circumspect when you read very specific definitions for which there is a dearth of evidence.

[i] There is some debate as to whether this type of cart was fundamentally different from the plaustrum.

In Vitruvius’ discussions on machines and implements he distinguishes between the plaustrum and the serrācum but without specifying what that distinction is:

portātiōnēsque eōrum nōn essent, nisi plostrōrum [ = plaustrōrum] seu serracōrum per terram, nāviculārum per aquam inventae essent māchinātiōnēs.

• ...and their transportation would not exist, unless the mechanisms of wagons or carts across land, and of small boats across water, had been invented.

[ii] It is suggested that its use was for transporting heavier payloads although we must be wary of assuming absolute distinctions when attested evidence is limited. Juvenal describes the traffic chaos caused by goods vehicles:

longa coruscat / serrācō veniente abiēs, atque altera pīnum / plaustra vehunt

• A long fir-tree sways as the cart approaches, and other wagons carry a pine tree

His reference to a long / tall fir-tree suggests that a larger, sturdier vehicle would be required, its bulk emphasised by the swaying motion. However, the choice of nouns may simply be adhering to the poetic metre

sēr-rā- | cō vĕ-nĭ- | ēn-t'ă-bĭ- | ēs, āt- | qu'āl-tĕ-ră | pī-nūm

plāus-tră vĕ- | hūnt ...

Juvenal is less concerned with specific function than with the creation of an overall effect. Describing the dangers of such freight traffic with high, bulky and precarious payloads, he continues:

nūtant altē populōque minantur. | they totter on high and threaten the people

nam sī prōcubuit quī saxa Ligustica portat axis / et ēversum fūdit super agmina montem, | for if the axle which carries Ligurian stones [ = marble] has broken and poured an upturned mountain on the crowds

quid superest dē corporibus? | what remains of the bodies?

[iii] The description of the devastating Antonine Plague from 165 – 180 AD does imply that mass transportation of human bodies would require a flatbed vehicle on four wheels to maximise stability. After all, nobody would have wished plague victims to be strewn over the streets:

Tanta autem pestilentia fuit ut vehiculīs cadāvera sint exportāta sarrācīsque. (Historia Augusta)

• ...and the plague was so great that bodies were carried out on carts and wagons

[iv] The following is a comment by Quintilian on a lost fragment of Cicero’s speech In Pisōnem:

An cum dīcit in Pīsōnem Cicerō 'cum tibi tōta cognātiō serrācō advehātur', incīdisse vidētur in sordidum nōmen, nōn eō contemptum hominis quem dēstrūctum volēbat auxisse?

• Or when Cicero, in his speech against Piso, says 'when all your relations are carted in a serrācum', does he appear to have fallen back on a vulgar word, and not rather to have increased thereby his contempt for the man whom he wanted to ruin?

i.e. the noun is used pejoratively to convey social distinction; a vehicle that is normally used for the transportation of heavy goods is transporting people.

[v] The following two quotations refer to Boötes.  Derived from Ancient Greek Βοώτης [Voótis], “the herdsman”, it is a large constellation in the northern sky.

Referring to the stars, Ovid describes them as plaustra i.e. as a yoked ‘team’ of carts being driven by ‘the herdsman’:

Tē quōque turbātum memorant fūgisse, Boōtē, quamvīs tardus erās et tē tua plaustra tenēbant. (Ovid)

• They say that you also fled in confusion, Boötes, even though you were slow and your wagons held you back.

Juvenal, however, portrays the stars in the same way as the slow, swaying wagon carrying a fir tree through crowded streets (see [ii] above). His use of serrāca is less elevated, emphasising the slow passage of time.

sīderibus dubiīs aut illō tempore quō sē / frīgida circumagunt pigrī serrāca Boōtae.

• when the stars are fading or when the cold carts of sluggish Bootes wheel round.

To conclude, we can see that a single word can be:

• open to multiple interpretations
• used both literally and metaphorically
• subject to overly confident and specific definitions

20.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [8]: heavy duty vehicles (1) plaustrum

plaustrum, -ī [2/n]: a two-wheeled or four-wheeled cart (plaustrum maius) / wagon with heavy solid wooden wheels and pulled by a pair of yoked oxen

Terram cariōsam cave nē ārēs, nēve plaustrum nēve pecus impellās; (Cato)

• Be careful not to plough crumbling / rotten soil, nor to drive a wagon or livestock over it;

Nunc quōquō veniās plūs plaustrōrum in aedibus videās quam rūrī, quandō ad vīllam vēnerīs (Plautus)

• Wherever you go these days, you see more wagons among city houses than in the country, when you visit a farm.

The wheels and axle were joined, revolving together that caused a creaking or screeching (strīdēns, -ntis) noise.

montīsque per altōs contentā cervīce trahunt strīdentia plaustra (Virgil)

• and across high mountains, with strained neck, they drag the creaking wagons

Note Virgil’s use of contentā and trahunt to convey that the wagon is a slow vehicle transporting heavy loads.

Ovid makes the same comment on the noise of the plaustrum:

...incūstōdītae dīripiuntur opēs, / rūris opēs parvae, pecus et strīdentia plaustra...

• ... unprotected wealth is plundered—the meager wealth of the countryside, the cattle, and the screeching wagons ...

19.04.27: Level 1-2 (review): Julia (a Latin Reader) [12] (1)

MŪSAE ET CICĀDAE (1)

Inter montēs Graecōs vallis iacēbat variīs flōribus laeta et omnium rērum fēcundissima. Dē montibus aquae frīgidae dēsiliēbant, et per campōs viridēs fluēbant. Multī gregēs, multa equōrum boumque armenta in agrīs clīvīsque errābant. Vallis montibus viridibus undique cingēbātur; nūllī viātōrēs eō intrābant, nec hieme, ubi montēs nive candidā teguntur, nec vēre, ubi hirundō argūta nīdum sub trabibus aedificat. Itaque incolae dē rēbus externīs nihil sciēbant, sed bene beātēque vīvēbant, nec cūrīs sollicitīs vexābantur.

Ad incolās in vallem ōlim dē caelō dēscendērunt Mūsae. Novem sunt Mūsae, poētārum carminumque deae. Ā Mūsīs omnēs hominum gentēs, sed in prīmīs poētae, cōnservantur et docentur.

[i]

hirundō, -inis [3/f]: swallow

mōns, montis [3/m]: mountain

nīdus, -ī [2/m]: nest

nix, nivis [3/f]: snow

vēr, vēris [3/n]: spring

[ii]

argūtus, -a, -um: shrill, clear

externus, -a, -um: outside, external

fēcundus, -a, -um: fruitful

frigidus, -a, -um: cold

varius, -a, -um: various, manifold

viridis, -e: green

[iii]

fluō, fluere [3]: flow

sciō, -īre [4]: know

vīvō, vīvere [3]: live

[iv]

beātē: happily

nihil: nothing

____________________

Among the Greek mountains lay a valley, rich in various flowers and most fertile in every kind of thing. Cold waters leapt down from the mountains and flowed through the green plains. Many flocks and many herds of horses and cattle wandered through the fields and hillsides.

The valley was surrounded on all sides by green mountains. No travellers entered it, neither in winter, when the mountains are covered with white snow, nor in spring, when the clear-voiced swallow builds its nest beneath the beams. Therefore the inhabitants knew nothing about foreign affairs, but lived well and happily, and were not troubled by anxious cares.

Once, the Muses descended from heaven to the inhabitants in the valley. There are nine Muses, the goddesses of poets and of songs. By the Muses all the races of mankind, but especially poets, are protected and instructed.

24.08.26: alibi ... and an addendum

It’s a straightforward question since the word crops up in countless detective movies:

• alibī: elsewhere; in law, it refers to the defence plea that the accused was elsewhere at the time of the crime  
• aliās: the English term ‘alias’ refers to a person who goes by alternative names. The original Latin adverb means ‘at another time; on another occasion’.
• alumnus, -ī [2/m]: pupil (male);  alumna, -ae [1/f]: pupil (female)

The fourth option (addendum) features a useful point of Latin grammar.

addendum: this is an example of a Latin future passive participle, also known as a gerundive:

The gerundive most often refers to something that needs to be or has to be done. It is formed from the stem of the present tense with a distinctive -nd- ending + the adjective endings -us, -a, -um; below are its forms with its basic meaning

laudō, laudā¦re [1]: praise > lauda- > laudandus, -a, -um: (which) is / needs / has to be praised 

timeō, timē¦re [2]: fear > time- > timendus, -a, -um│ which is to be feared

dēleō, dēlē¦re [2]: destroy > dēle- > dēlendus, -a, -um│ which is to be destroyed

Carthāgō dēlenda est (Cato the Elder) | Carthage is to be / has to be / must be destroyed.

dūcō, dūce¦re [3]:lead > dūc- > dūcendus, -a, -um│ which is to be led

3-iō and 4^th conjugation have -ie- as the stem before the ending is added

capiō, cape¦re [3-iō] > capie¦ndus, -a, -um│ which is to be captured

audiō, audī¦re [4] > audie¦ndus, -a, -um│ which is to be heard

English has derived nouns from this construction:

(1) addō, addere [3]: add > addendus, -a, -um | which is to be added

> Engl. deriv: addendum – something that needs to be added)

When the boss forgot to include something in a document, he may send you an addendum (or several addenda).

(2) corrigō, corrigere [3]: correct > corrigendus, -a, -um | which is to be corrected

> Engl. deriv: corrigendum – something that needs to be corrected)

Less so nowadays, but a book may contain a corrigendum or, more commonly, a list of corrigenda i.e. this is added to the book / document after its publication to refer to errors that have been noted and, presumably, are to be corrected in the next edition or which need to be corrected by the reader when they appear. 

(3) Business meetings may begin with an agenda, a summary of items that need to be done during the meeting.

agō, agere [3]: do > agendus, -a, -um | which is to be done

(4) You may receive a memo by email i.e. a memorandum – something that needs to be remembered – or maybe you have several things you need to remember: memoranda

memorō, memorāre [1]: remind; bring to mind > memorandus, -a, -um | which is to be brought to mind

(5) two proper nouns in English are derived from the gerundive forms:

amō, amāre [1]: love > amandus, -a, -um | which (who) is to be loved > Amanda

mīror, mīrārī [1/deponent]: wonder at > mīrandus, -a, -um | which (who) is to be wondered / admired at

The formidable boss of Runway in “The Devil Wears Prada” is Miranda Priestly, she who is to be wondered / marvelled at – the perfect choice of name for her character.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/11/120225-level-2-reading-schoolmasters.html