02.09.26: Level 3+; Conditional clauses [4]: sī + quis, quid, quandō

[1] Conditional clauses can be indefinite, i.e. they do not refer to any specific person, thing, or time, but express general or open-ended reference.

[i]

(a) sī + quis (which can decline): if anyone / someone

Ac sī quis est tālis … nōn est ista mea culpa (Cicero)

• But if there is anyone of that sort … that’s not my fault.

Sī quī exīre volunt, cōnīvēre possum (Cicero)

• If anyone wishes to leave, I can look the other way.

(b) Similarly with nisi:

Nisi quis retinet, īdem suāsor auctorque cōnsiliī erō (Tacitus)

• Unless someone holds (me back), I shall be the proposer and instigator of the plan.

Quid igitur? quī nunc vocāre? / Nēmō nisi quem iusseris (Plautus)

• Well then — who am I to summon now? / No one, unless you order someone.

[ii]

(a) sī + quid: if anything / something

• Sī quid est ... prōvidendum est (Cicero)

If there is anything, it should be guarded against.

Ego ad tē, sī quid audierō citius, scrībam (Cicero)

• If I hear anything, I shall write to you first.

(b) Similarly with nisi:

Ego eō ad forum, nisi quid vīs (Plautus)

• I’m going to the forum unless you want anything.

Ego, nisi quid mē vīs, eō lavātum (Platusu)

• If you do not want me for anything / Unless you want me for something, I’m going to get washed.

[iii] sī + quandō: if ever

In senātū sī quandō praeclārē prō rē pūblicā dīxerō (Cicero)

• If I ever make a notable speech in the Senate on behalf of the republic

Sī quandō opus erit, … (Cicero)

• If there is ever a need …

Examples:

Sī quis ¦ quid reddit, magna habenda est grātia (Terence)

• If anyone gives anything back, one should be very grateful

Sī quid in tē peccāvī … ignōsce (Cicero)

• If I have wronged you in any respect, forgive me.

Dumtaxat rūmōrēs, vel etiam sī qua certa habēs dē Caesare, exspectō (Cicero)

• At the very least, I am waiting for rumours or even if you have any certain (news) about Caesar

Nec posthāc quisquam damnābitur, nisi quī hominem occīdent (Cicero)

• And from now on, no one shall be condemned, except those who kill a man.

Cicero referring to statues:

Illa omnia in Tusculānum dēportābō. Cāiētam, sī quandō abundāre coeperō, ōrnābō.

• I’ll bring all those to my place at Tusculum. If I ever start filling it too much [ = literally: if I ever start to overflow], I’ll decorate Caieta.

02.09.26: Level 3+; Conditional clauses [3]: nisī; sī … nōn

[1] A negative conditional clause is expressed in English “if … not” or “unless”

If you do not give me the money, I cannot buy the tickets.

Unless you give me the money, I cannot buy the tickets.

The equivalents in Latin are expressed by:

[i] sī … nōn; [ii] nisi

Eō sī ante eam diem nōn vēneris, ¦ Rōmae tē fortasse vidēbō (Cicero)

• If you do not get there before that date, perhaps I shall see you at Rome.

Velim, sī tibī grave nōn erit, certiōrem mē faciās (Cicero)

• I would like, if it is not [will not be] any trouble to you, you to let me know.

"Dēsilite", inquit, "mīlitēs, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prōdere" (Caesar)

• '"Jump down, soldiers," he said, "unless you wish to betray the eagle to the enemies"'

“Nisi mē frūstrantur,” inquit, “oculī, māter tibī coniūnxque et līberī adsunt” (Livy)

• “unless my eyes are deceiving me,” he said, “your mother and wife and children are here”

Dēcēdēs, cum volēs, nisi forte iam dēcessistī (Cicero)

• You will depart when you wish — unless perhaps you have already departed / if you haven’t already departed.

01.09.26: Level 3; Reading (review); [33] [ii] The siren’s song

During his journey home, Odysseus also passes the island of the Sirens (Sīrēnēs), who lure sailors to the shore with their songs and then kill them.

In order to be able to listen to the singing without danger, Odysseus has his men tie him to the mast and orders them to obstruct their ears. He himself listens:

“Salvē, Ulixēs, imperātor et rēx! Tē, victōrem magnī bellī Ithacaeque rēgem, salūtāmus; et victōrī et rēgī iūstum honōrem tribuimus. Tū mīlitibus Graecīs bene suāsistī, tū multōs labōrēs sustinuistī. Tū es summus cūnctōrum ducum et imperātōrum, et beātus est ille senex, Lāertēs pater tuus. Magnum erit gaudium patrisque mātrisque, sī tē integrum salūtābunt, sī Ithaca rēge servātō gaudēbit! Proinde appropinquā et auscultā, nam nōbīs nihil ignōtum est: Nārrābimus tibi dē virīs clārīs, quōs superāvistī; nōn ignōrāmus tē magnam multitūdinem hominum prōstrāvisse. Cūnctae regiōnēs sunt plēnae tuae laudis.”

Dum virginēs sīc cantant, Ulixēs comitēs vocat; nam diūtius auscultāre studet. Illī autem rēmōs dūcere pergunt.

Sīrēn, -is [3/f]: (Greek mythology) Siren

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siren_(mythology)

Images #1 and #2: 370 BC; 1^st century BC

Image #3: the Sirens may be equally depicted as having the features of fish, such as this example from the Bestiary of AD 1235

pergō, pergere, perrēxī, perrectus [3]: continue, proceed, go on

rēmus, -ī [2/m]: oar

Note: apposition

Appposition refers to two or more words – nouns or pronouns – which are adjacent to one another and refer to the same person / thing:

I live in Paris. I live in the capital of France.

> I live in [i] Paris, [ii] the capital of France. In the sentence ‘Paris’ and ‘the capital of France’ are in apposition.

[i] Henry the Eighth, [ii] the King of England ¦ at that time, …

[i] You, [ii] Joe, are a great athlete.

When this occurs, both parts of the apposition are in the same case:

Salvē, [i] Ulixēs, [ii] imperātor et [iii] rēx! │ “Greetings, [i] Ulysses, [ii] commander and [iii] king!

• All are in the vocative case, addressing Ulysses directly.

[i] Tē, [ii] victōrem magnī bellī Ithacaeque [iii] rēgem, salūtāmus; │ We greet [i] you as [ii] victor of the great war and [iii] king of Ithaca;

• All are in the accusative case, the direct object of salūtāmus

beātus est ille [i] senex, [ii] Lāertēs [iii] pater tuus │ blessed is that [i] old man, [ii] Laertes [iii] your father.

• All are in the nominative case, the subject of the sentence

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/07/230824-level-2-practice-in-reading_18.html

Exercises

[1] Give the nominative singular of the nouns from the text:

[i] ducum

[ii] hominum

[iii] laudis

[iv] mīlitibus

[v] multitūdinem

[vi] regiōnēs

[vii] virginēs

[2] Identify the word type in bold and explain why it is being used:

[i] Proinde appropinquā et auscultā

[ii] nōn ignōrāmus tē magnam multitūdinem hominum prōstrāvisse

[4] What tense is being used and how does that differ from English usage?

Magnum erit gaudium patrisque mātrisque, sī tē integrum salūtābunt, sī Ithaca rēge servātō gaudēbit!

____________________

[1]

[i] dux

[ii] homō

[iii] laus

[iv] mīles

[v] multitūdō

[vi] regiō

[vii] virgō

[2]

[i] imperative; giving a command

[ii] perfect active infinitive in an indirect statement

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/120126-level-3-indirect-statement.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/150126-level-3-indirect-statement.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/180126-level-3-indirect-statement.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/210126-level-3-indirect-statement.html

[iii] future tense; in the conditional clause, English would normally use the present

It will be a great joy for both father and mother if they (will) greet you safe and whole, if Ithaca rejoices [will rejoice] …

____________________

“Greetings, Ulysses, commander and king! We greet you as victor of the great war and king of Ithaca; and to both victor and king we grant just honour. You have served the Greek soldiers well; you have endured many hardships. You are the greatest of all leaders and commanders, and blessed is that old man, your father Laertes. It will be a great joy for both father and mother if they greet you safe and whole, if Ithaca rejoices now that the king has been saved! Therefore, come nearer and listen, for nothing is unknown to us: we will tell you about the famous men whom you have defeated; we are not unaware that you have overthrown a great multitude of men. All regions are full of your praise.”

While the maidens sing thus, Ulysses calls his companions; for he wishes to listen longer. But they continue to row the oars.

31.08.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [33] (2) comprehension [2]

PART TWO

In urbe amīca Iūliam salūtat. Laetae sunt hae amīcae ubi dē temporibus quibus erant puellae colloquium habent. Amīca urbem suam laudat et multa loca Iūliae mōnstrāre vult. In ūnō aedificiō sunt tēla et rēs antīquae bellī. Iūlia haec laudat et dē fīliō suō putat. Tēla quibus lēgātī et centuriōnēs, quī centum mīlitēs dūcēbant, sē et cīvitātem dēfendērunt, Iūlia laudat. Corōnam, quam dux fortis excēpit, videt. Diū inter rēs antīquās Iūlia et amīca manent.

[1] In which order are the following first referred to?

a military award _____

defending the state _____

greeting a friend _____

old weapons _____

Roman military leadership _____

showing the city _____

talking about old times _____

thinking about her son _____

[2] Complete the Latin text with the verb forms listed below; note the differences in the Latin and English word order:

Then (1) they want (2) to go again through the streets of the city. Julia (3) wants (4) to bring gifts to her son and daughter. The gifts (5) will be welcome. Because Charles and his companions often (6) wage war in the garden, Julia (7) brings spears and certain other weapons. For with these weapons the boys (8) will defend themselves against enemies. The spears are long and heavy, but (9) they defend a soldier well. It is difficult (10) to throw them. It is difficult (11) to catch them and (12) to throw (send) them again at the enemy. Julia (13) thinks about all these things and is happy.

Deinde iterum per viās urbis (2) __________ (1) __________. Iūlia dōna ad fīlium fīliamque (4) __________ (3) __________. Dōna (5) __________ grāta. Quod Carolus et comitēs eius bellum saepe in hortō (6) __________, Iūlia hastās et quaedam alia tēla (7) __________. Hīs tēlīs enim puerī sē ab hostibus (8) __________. Hastae sunt longae et gravēs, sed mīlitem bene (9) __________. Difficile est hās (10) __________. Difficile est hās (11) __________ et iterum ad hostēs (12) __________. Dē hīs omnibus Iūlia (13) __________ et laeta est.

dēfendent; dēfendunt; erunt; excipere; ferre; fert; gerunt; iacere; īre; mittere; putat; volunt; vult

____________________

[1]

a military award [8]

defending the state [7]

greeting a friend [1]

old weapons [4]

Roman military leadership [6]

showing the city [3]

talking about old times [2]

thinking about her son [5]

[2]

Deinde iterum per viās urbis (2) īre (1) volunt. Iūlia dōna ad fīlium fīliamque (4) ferre (3) vult. Dōna (5) erunt grāta. Quod Carolus et comitēs eius bellum saepe in hortō (6) gerunt, Iūlia hastās et quaedam alia tēla (7) fert. Hīs tēlīs enim puerī sē ab hostibus (8) dēfendent. Hastae sunt longae et gravēs, sed mīlitem bene (9) dēfendunt. Difficile est hās (10) iacere. Difficile est hās (11) excipere et iterum ad hostēs (12) mittere. Dē hīs omnibus Iūlia (13) putat et laeta est.

30.08.26: Level 1 (review); vocabulary [11]: actions (2)

[1] Listen to the recording. In which order are the following referred to?

[2] Label the images

amīcum videō

cīvēs Rōmānī lūdōs spectant 

cōgitō ergō sum         

elephantus mūrem timet       

gaudeāmus, igitur, iuvenēs dum sumus

īnfāns lacrimat          

lac bibō           

Latīnē loquimur         

magistra clāmat         

nōlī mē tangere!

ōvum frīctum edō      

puella mūsicam audit

tē amō

unguentum olfaciō

vīnum gustō

____________________

[1]

[2]

29.08.26: Level 3+; Conditional clauses [2]: real conditions (2) further examples

In these clause types, English and Latin writers vary the indicative tenses, and there are numerous permutations. They may choose a specific tense since they have a particular idea in mind that they wish to convey, for example:

If you read that book, you will love it.

If you haven’t read that book, then I’m disappointed.

[i] There is often a parallel between the Latin verb usage and the English translations, for example:

Sī mē amās [present], ¦ cūrā [imperative], ut ... (Cicero)

• If you love me [present], ¦ [imperative] see to it that …

Tū sī litterās ad Sicyōniōs habēs [present], advolā [imperative] in Formiānum (Cicero)

• If you have [present], a letter to send to the Sicyonians, hasten [imperative] to Formiae.

Quid faciēmus [future], sī aliter nōn possumus [present]? (Cicero)

• What shall we do [future], if we cannot (do) otherwise [present]?

Sī fuit [perfect] invidiōsa senātūs potentia… quid iam cēnsēs [present] fore? (Cicero)

• If the power of the Senate was [simple past] unpopular … what do you think [present] it will be like now?

[ii] Where it differs most is when the conditional clause refers to the future. The distinction between the future and the future perfect in the conditional clause is whether the speaker is focussing on the action being carried out [future], or on the completion of the action [future perfect].

Mihi crēde, ¦ sī legēs [future] haec, ¦ dīcēs [future] mīrābilis vir est (Cicero)

• Trust me, if you read [present; La: will read] them, ¦ you will say “The man is a wonder.”

Latīnum sī perfēcerō [future perfect], ¦ ad tē mittam [future] (Cicero)

• [Latin (literally): If I shall have finished the Latin version, I shall send it to you.]
• If I finish [present] / If I have finished [present perfect] the Latin version, ¦ I shall send [future] it to you.

[iii] A subjunctive verb may be used in the apodosis:

Sī quid habēs certius, velim scīre (Cicero)

• If you have anything more certain, I would like to know.

The subjunctive in this context is not affecting the conditional clause but is simply being used independently to convey a polite request.

In this next example, a jussive subjunctive is used:

Quī hominēs quam prīmum, sī stāre nōn possunt, corruant (Cicero)

• If these men cannot stand, let them fall as soon as possible.

____________________

Below are further examples; compare and contrast the verb usage.

Nunc, sī quid in eā epistulā, quam ante diem XVI Kal. Maiās dedistī, fuit historia dignum, scrībe quam prīmum (Cicero)

• So, if there was anything worth saying in the letter of the 16th of April, write at once.

Sī quī Graecī iam Rōmam ex Asiā … vēnērunt … (Cicero)

• If any Greeks have already come to Rome from Asia …

Quid iīs fīet, sī hūc Paulus vēnerit (Cicero)

• What will happen to them if Paulus comes [will have come] here?

Sī quid rēs feret, cōram inter nōs cōnferēmus (Cicero)

• If any point arises [will arise], we will discuss it together face-to-face.

Aliī sī scrīpserint, mittēmus ad tē (Cicero)

• If others (will) have written (about it), we shall send them to you.

Tū, sī tibi placuerit liber, cūrābis ut … (Cicero)

• If the book pleases [will have pleased] you, you will see to it that …

Eō sī ante eam diem nōn vēneris, Rōmae tē fortasse vidēbō (Cicero)

• If you do not get [will not have come] there before that date, perhaps I shall see you at Rome.

Sī dīxerō mendācium, solēns meō mōre fēcerō (Plautus)

• If I tell [shall have told] a lie, I shall have done so as I usually do according to my custom.

Tū, sī ūnō in locō es futūrus, crēbrās ā nōbīs litterās exspectā (Cicero)

• If you are going to be in one place, expect many letters from us.

Intereā scrībās [subjunctive], sī quid intellegēs (Cicero)

• Meanwhile, if you learn anything, you should write to me

Sī iam es Rōmae … velim [subjunctive] mittās … (Cicero)

• If you are already in Rome, I would like you to send …

An overdose of conditional clauses:

Quam ob rem, sī mē amās tantum, quantum profectō amās, sī dormīs, expergīscere, sī stās, ingredere, sī ingrederis, curre, sī curris, advolā. (Cicero)

Quam ob rem, sī mē amās tantum, quantum profectō amās, … │ Therefore, if you love me as much as you really love me …

sī dormīs, expergīscere │ if you are sleeping, wake up

sī stās, ingredere │ if you are standing, get moving

sī ingrederis, curre │ if you are moving, run

sī curris, advolā │ if you are running, fly

29.08.26: Level 3+; Conditional clauses [1]: introduction; real conditions (1)

Take your life in your hands and suggest to Norman, the owner of the Bates Motel in Hitchcock’s Psycho how he should deal with his “mother” …

MARION

You know, if anyone ever talked to me, the way I heard... the way she spoke to you, …

NORMAN

When you love someone, you don't do that to them, even if you hate them. Oh, I don't hate her.  I hate... what she's become. I hate... the illness.

MARION (Slowly, carefully)

Wouldn't it be better if you put her in... someplace...

Ah well, if Marion hadn’t taken a wrong turning, she would not have met Norman – but she did take a wrong turning, and she did meet him and, well, you’ll need to watch the movie…

Among all Latin clause types, conditional clauses show the closest parallel with English: in both languages, verb forms change to express the speaker’s perspective.

Image #1: conditional clauses can be broadly classified according to type.

Here, we will look at the types under the overall heading of real conditions: the speaker treats the situation in the conditional clause as true, rather than as imaginary or unreal, and are used with the indicative mood in Latin:

(a) General truths:

If you heat ice, it melts.

If he (ever) saw a poor man in the street, he used to give him some money.

(b) Specific situations considered likely in context, whether present or past:

If he thinks that, he is mistaken.

If he did that, he made a mistake.

(c) Specific situations in the future which, again, the speaker treats as likely to happen:

If gives me the money, I will buy the cake.

Grammar books may give slightly different terms for these conditional types, but the key point is that none of the conditions express any doubt, but rather as true or likely to be true.

[1] present / past

[A] Sī tū exercitusque valētis [present indicative], ¦ [B] bene est [present indicative] (Cicero)

• If you and the army are well, ¦ it is well.

[A] Sī iam melius valēs [present indicative], ¦ [B] vehementer gaudeō [present indicative] (Cicero)

• If you are in better health now, ¦ I am very glad.

[A] Sī quī māgnīs in eō genere exstitērunt [perfect indicative], ¦ [B] nōn satis Graecōrum glōriae respondērunt [perfect indicative] (Cicero)

• If any have shown themselves of great genius in that department, ¦ they have not competed sufficiently with the glory of the Greeks. 

[A] Sī peccāvī [perfect indicative], ¦ [B] īnsciēns fēcī [perfect indicative] (Terence)

• If I did / have done wrong, ¦ I did / have done so unwittingly.

The sentences above have two clauses:

[A] The conditional clause introduced by sī (if); this is called the protasis and states the condition on which [B] depends.

[B] The main clause is called the apodosis.

It is useful to remember those two terms, since they are commonly used in grammar books.

[A: PROTASIS] Sī illum relinquō,¦ [B: APODOSIS] eius vītae timeō (Terence)

• If I abandon him, ¦ I fear for his life.

[A: PROTASIS] Sī quī exīre volunt,¦ [B: APODOSIS] cōnīvēre possum (Cicero)

• If any wish to depart, ¦ I can keep my eyes shut.

[A: PROTASIS] Sī est in exsiliō [PROTASIS], … ¦ B: APODOSIS] quid amplius postulātis? (Cicero)

• If he is in exile, ¦ what more do you ask?

[2] future more vivid

[i] In grammar the term future more vivid conditional refers to an outcome that the speaker thinks / perceives is more likely to happen

[ii] Unlike English, a future condition in the protasis is expressed by sī + the future or future perfect tense:

[A] Quod sī legere aut audīre volētis [future indicative] . . . [B] reperiētis [future indicative] … (Cicero)

• If you (will) want to read or hear it … you will find …

[A] Egō ad tē, ¦ [B] sī quid audierō [future perfect indicative] citius, ¦ scrībam [future indicative]. (Cicero)

• I shall write to you ¦ if I hear [literally: shall have heard) anything sooner.

[A] Haec sī attulerīs [future perfect indicative], [B] cēnābis [future indicative] bene (Catullus)

• If you bring [literally: will have brought] these things, ¦ you will dine well.

[3] general / iterative:

[i] When (if) you love someone, you don't do that to them.

Whenever he saw / If he ever saw a poor man …; the term iterative may be applied to this type of condition to define an action that happens / happened repeatedly:

English can convey these conditions, with ‘when(ever)’ rather than ‘if’; Latin uses sī:

Sī pēs condoluit, sī dēns, ferre nōn possumus (Cicero)

• If (ever) a foot or a tooth has begun to ache, ¦ we can't bear it.

[ii] The idea may be emphasised by the addition of quandō, but not as a replacement for sī:

Sī quandō in puerīs ante alter dēns nāscitur ... (Celsus)

• If ever in children a second tooth appears  …

[iii] When referring to the past, the imperfect or pluperfect tense can be used in the conditional clause:

Sī legēbant, inveniēbant disciplīnam.

• If (whenever) they read, they acquired / used to acquire knowledge.

Sī pauperem in viā vidēbat / vīderat, semper eum adiuvāre cōnābātur.

• If he saw a poor man in the street, he would always try to help him.

Sī tribūnī, sī legiō industriam innocentiamque adprobāverant, retinēbat ōrdinem (Tacitus)

• If the tribunes or legion approved of his industry and innocence, he would retain his rank.

[4]  ‘if’ is also used in English to ask an indirect question e.g. I want to know if he’s arrived = I want to know whether he’s arrived (or not).

Latin does not use sī to convey that idea, but num and utrum … an

Level 3+; Subjunctive [68] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (5); num

Level 3+; Subjunctive [69] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (6); utrum … an …

[5] In all conditional constructions [A] and [B] may, as in English, be reversed:

[B] Experiar et dīcam [future indicative], ¦ [A] sī poterō [future indicative], plānius (Cicero)

• I shall try and explain, ¦ if I can [literally: if I shall be able; future indicative] more clearly (Cicero)

[5] tenses can be mixed:

Convincam [future indicative], ¦ sī negās [present indicative] (Cicero)

• I shall prove it, ¦ if you deny it.

Sī pēs condoluit [perfect indicative], sī dēns, ¦ ferre nōn possumus [present indicative] (Cicero)

• If (ever) a foot or a tooth has begun to ache, ¦ we can't bear it.

Cēnābis [future indicative] bene, mī fabulle, apud mē / paucīs, ¦ sī tibi dī favent [present indicative], ¦ diēbus (Catullus)

• You will dine well, my Fabullus, at my house, ¦ in a few days’ time if the gods favour you.

Sī ille exitum nōn reperiēbat [imperfect indicative], ¦ quis nunc reperiet [future indicative]? (Cicero)

• If he was not able to find any way out, ¦ who will find one now?

Misera plūs perdidī [perfect indicative], sī nēmō crēdit [present indicative] (Quintilian)

• Wretched I have lost more ¦ if noone believes me.

28.08.26: Level 3; Reading (review); [33] [i] The magician Circe

Another episode of Odysseus’ journey home:

Ulixēs, postquam magnā cum audāciā diū per undās nāvigāvit, īnsulam Circae intrāvit. Ibi ille vir callidus nōnnūllōs sociōs in vīllam Circae mīsit. Quibus illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; venēnō domitōs in suēs mūtāvit. Ūnus ex iīs, quī venēnum negāverat, ēvāsit docuitque Ulixem. Quem Mercurius quoque dē dolīs Circae docuerat remediumque praebuerat et eī suāserat: “Hōc remediō ā mē datō perīculum dolōsque deae vītābis!” Quibus verbīs monitus Ulixēs illō remediō tūtus vīllam Circae intrāvit, Circam ipsam gladiō ursit, dolōs perniciōsōs eius arcuit. Iussit eam illōs sociōs iam in suēs mūtātōs rūrsus in virōs mūtāre. Sīc ūnā cum sociīs vīvus ex illā īnsulā ēvāsit.

Circa, -ae [1/f]: (alternative to Circē) name of a witch in Greek mythology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circe

venēnum, -ī [2/n]: (here) magic potion; poison

sūs, suis [3 m/f]: pig

[1] The connecting relative

[i] The following is incorrect in standard written English:

I bought a book. *Which I gave* to my brother.

English cannot begin a sentence with a relative pronoun that refers to something / someone in the previous sentence. The idea would be expressed in the following ways:

I bought a book which I gave to my brother [i.e. as one sentence, which introducing a subordinate clause]

I bought a book. I gave it to my brother. [i.e. two sentences; English would most commonly avoid repeating the noun by using a pronoun]

 I bought a book and I gave it to my brother [i.e. as one sentence with a coordinating conjunction]

[ii] Latin, however, can begin a sentence with the relatives quī, quae, quod referring to something / someone in the previous sentence, known in grammar as the antecedent:

Ibi ille vir callidus nōnnūllōs sociōs [antecedent] in vīllam Circae mīsit. Quibus [connecting relative] illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; …

Such sentences can be translated in different ways, the choice determined by style and context:

(a)   as separate sentences with the inclusion of a pronoun referring to the antecedent

There, that clever man sent some of his companions into her house. The goddess offered them wine mixed with poison; …

(b)   combining those sentences with ‘and’; that neatly conveys the “connecting” nature of quī, quae, quod

… and the goddess offered them …

(c)   a relative clause

… docuitque Ulixem [antecedent]. Quem [connecting relative] Mercurius quoque dē dolīs Circae docuerat …

… and informed Ulysses whom Mercury had also informed about Circe’s tricks, …

[iii] Translations are not always interchangeable; a common example is when the connecting relative refers to an entire preceding statement where a relative clause would sound clumsy:

“Hōc remediō ā mē datō perīculum dolōsque deae vītābis!” Quibus verbīs monitus Ulixēs …

 “With this remedy given by me, you will avoid the danger and the tricks of the goddess.” Having been warned by these words, Ulysses … [or: …, and having been warned …]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/connecting%20relative

[2] Taking care when translating:

Latin word order is far more flexible than English and so, when translating, be conscious of what is and is not acceptable in standard English translation:

Quibus illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; venēnō domitōs in suēs mūtāvit.

The goddess offered them wine mixed with poison; *having been subdued by the potion*, she changed them into pigs.

Although “having been subdued by the potion” is the correct translation, its position in the English sentence above would indicate that she had been subdued by the potion, which is incorrect. Rewording is needed to be clear who that phrase is referring to:

“… once / after / when they had been subdued by the potion, she changed them …”

____________________

Ulysses, after he had sailed for a long time over the waves with great boldness, entered the island of Circe. There that clever man sent some companions into Circe’s house. The goddess offered them wine mixed with a (magic) potion; after they had been subdued by the potion, she changed them into pigs.

One of them, who had refused the potion, escaped and informed Ulysses. Mercury also had warned him about the tricks of Circe, had provided a remedy, and had advised him: “With this remedy given by me, you will avoid the danger and the tricks of the goddess.”

(Having been) warned by these words, Ulysses, safe because of that remedy [ = protected by that remedy], entered Circe’s house, threatened Circe herself with his sword, and drove away / warded off her deadly tricks. He ordered her to change those companions, who had already been turned into pigs, back into men. Thus he escaped alive from that island together with his companions.

27.08.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [33] (1) comprehension [1]

PART ONE

Paucīs ante diēbus Iūlia epistulam accēpit. Amīca Iūliae quae in urbe habitat eam vidēre maximē vult. Itaque māter Carolī et Mariae ad tēctum amīcae invītātur. Laeta est quod diū amīcam nōn vīdit. Quamquam via est longa et paucōs diēs aberit, iter facere cōnstituit.

Tandem omnia sunt parāta et Iūlia ā casā discēdit et ad urbem prōcēdit. Nunc nēmō est in casā. Omnēs absunt. Pater in nāvigiō est. Per noctēs Carolus cum Cassiō, Maria cum Helenā manet. Itaque nocte nēmō domī est. “Eruntne omnia tūta?” rogat Maria. “Ita,” respondet māter, quod Claudius saepe hūc ex oppidō veniet et casam dēfendet. Nōn est necesse timēre. Deinde iānuam casae claudit.

[i] When did Julia receive a letter? (1)

[ii] What does the letter say? (2)

[iii] Why is she happy? (2)

[iv] How do we know she is determined to see her? (3)

[v] Why is nobody in the house at night? (4)

[vi]What does Maria ask? (1)

[vii] Why does the mother say there’s no need to be afraid? (2)

____________________

[i] a few days ago (1)

[ii] Her friend in the city (1) very much wants to see her (1).

[iii] She has not seen her friend (1) for a long time (1).

[iv] She decides to make the journey (1) although the road is long (1) and she will be away for a few days (1).

[v] Julia leaves for the city (1); the father is away on a ship; (1) Carolus stays with Cassius (1); Maria stays with Helena (1)

[vi] “Will everything be safe?”

[vii] Claudius will often come from the town (1) and defend the house (1).

26.08.26: Level 1 (review); vocabulary [10]: actions (1)

[1] Which of the following are related to:

(a) sight

(b) touch

(c) smell

(d) taste

(e) hearing

(f) speech

(g) positive emotional reactions

(h) negative emotional reactions

(i) mental processes

amō

audiō

auscultō

bibō

clāmō

cōgitō

dīcō

doleō

edō

fleō

gaudeō

gustō

lacrimō

loquor

metuō

olfaciō

pōtō

rīdeō

sapiō

spectō

subrīdeō

tangō

timeō

videō

____________________

(a) sight: videō, spectō

(b) touch: tangō

(c) smell: olfaciō

(d) taste: gustō, sapiō, edō, bibō, pōtō

(e) hearing: audiō, auscultō

(f) speech: loquor, dīcō, clāmō

(g) positive emotional reactions: rīdeō, subrīdeō, gaudeō, amō

(h) negative emotional reactions: lacrimō, fleō, doleō, timeō, metuō

(i) mental processes: cōgitō

25.08.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [32] [4]

Carolus et Cassius erunt mīlitēs ubi erunt virī. Sīc dēsīderant. Itaque fābulās magistrae dē bellīs antīquīs laetē audiunt. Hodiē quod nix est alta et diēs nōn est grātus, in scholā discipulī manent. Magistra haec legit. Legiō Rōmāna interdum circiter tria mīlia mīlitum habēbat. Exercitus multōs ducēs habēbat. Aliī erant lēgātī, aliī erant centuriōnēs. Imperātor omnī exercituī imperābat. Centuriōnēs centum mīlitēs dūcēbant. Tōtus exercitus ācriter pugnābat ubi perīculum erat grave. Sī imperātor hostēs vincēbat, interdum corōnam ā cīvitāte excipiēbat. Haec erat praemium. Sīc Rōmānī imperātōrēs bonōs laudābant.

Omnēs discipulī hās fābulās laudant. Aestāte eī in silvā sunt et mīlitēs sunt. In duās partēs dīvīsī sunt. Ūna pars agmen facit et ad flūmen prōcēdit. Sub colle quīdam ex discipulīs castra pōnunt. Locus nōn est inīquus. Reliquī multās rēs faciunt. Aliī sunt nūntiī, aliī sunt vigilēs. Alia pars discipulōrum est exercitus hostium. Signum datur et hostēs appropinquant. Tēla iaciunt et nūntiōs in omnēs partēs mittunt. Carolus et eius comitēs vāllum celeriter aedificant quod impetūs hostium timent. Post hoc vāllum sē cēlant. Tēla hostium ā comitibus Carolī excipiuntur et iterum eadem ad hostēs mittuntur. Proelium graviter pugnātur. Lēgātī centuriōnēsque bene dūcunt. Tandem fuga hostium est grāta Carolō et eius comitibus. Nēmō interficitur. Subitō signum audītur. Magistra vocat. Discipulī respondent. Fīnis proeliī est.

[1] Below are nouns in this passage referring to war and the military. They are listed in their nominative forms. Match the Latin and English.

[2] Fill in the missing genitive case endings listed below. Some are used more than once.

1. corōna, corōn_____
2. fuga, fug_____
3. nūntius, nunti_____
4. legātus, legāt_____
5. bellum, bell_____
6. proelium, proeli_____
7. signum, sign_____
8. tēlum, tēl_____
9. vāllum, vāll_____
10. castra, castr_____
11. vigil, vigil_____
12. imperātor, imperāt_____
13. centuriō, centuriō_____
14. legiō, legiō_____
15. dux, du_____
16. agmen, agm_____
17. milēs, mil_____
18. hostēs, host_____
19. exercitus, exercit_____
20. impetus, impet_____

-ae; -cis; -ī; -inis; -is; -it is; -ium; -nis; -ōris; -ōrum; -ūs

[3] (1) Identify the case, number of the word in bold (2) give the nominative singular, declension and gender, and (3) explain as precisely as possible why the case is being used.

[i] fābulās … audiunt

[ii] imperātor omnī exercituī imperābat

[iii] multās rēs faciunt

[iv] fuga hostium

[v] impetūs hostium timent

[vi] post hoc vāllum sē cēlant

[vii] fuga … est grāta (a) Carolō (b) et eius comitibus

[viii] Tēla … (a) ā comitibus (b) Carolī excipiuntur

[ix] corōnam ā cīvitāte excipiēbat

[x] aestāte eī in silvā sunt

____________________

[1]

[2]

1. corōna, corōnae
2. fuga, fugae
3. nūntius, nuntiī
4. legātus, legātī
5. bellum, bellī
6. proelium, proeliī
7. signum, signī
8. tēlum, tēlī
9. vāllum, vāllī
10. castra, castrōrum
11. vigil, vigilis
12. imperātor, imperātōris
13. centuriō, centuriōnis
14. legiō, legiōnis
15. dux, ducis
16. agmen, agminis
17. milēs, militis
18. hostēs, hostium
19. exercitus, exercitūs
20. impetus, impetūs

[3]

[i] fabulās: (1) accusative plural; (2) < fabulae, -ae [1/f]; (3) direct object of audiunt

[ii] exercituī: dative singular < exercitus, -ūs [4/m]; used with imperō, -āre (to command), the verb regularly followed by the dative case

[iii] rēs: accusative plural < rēs, -eī [5/f]; direct object of faciunt

[iv] hostium: genitive plural < hostis, -is [3/m]; indicates possession [the flight of the enemies]

[v] impetūs: accusative plural < impetus, -ūs [4/m]; direct object of timent

[vi] vāllum: accusative singular < vāllum, -ī [2/n]; with preposition post

[vii]

(a) Carolō: dative singular < Carolus, -ī [2/m]; indirect object of grāta [pleasing to Carolus]

(b) comitibus: dative plural < comes, comitis [3/m]; indirect object of grāta [pleasing to his companions]

[viii]

(a) comitibus: ablative plural < comes, comitis [3/m]; with preposition ā to express ablative of agent [the missiles are caught by the companions]

(b) Carolī: genitive singular < Carolus, -ī [2/m]; possession; [the companions of Carolus; Carolus’ companions]

[ix] civitāte: ablative singular < civitās, -tātis [3/f]; with preposition ā to express from the state

[x] aetāte: ablative singular < aetās, -tātis [3/f]; ablative of time when [in summer]

24.08.26: Level 1 (review); vocabulary [9]: military

Label the image:

balteus, -ī [2/m]

caliga, -ae [1/f]

cingulum, -ī [2/n] mīlitāre

crista, -ae [1/f]

cuspis, cuspidis [3/f]

galea, -ae [1/f]

gladius, -ī [2/m]

hasta, -ae [1/f]

lōrīca, -ae [1/f] segmentāta

mūrus, -ī [2/m] / moenia, -um [3/n/pl]

ōcrea, -ae [1/f]

pinna, -ae [1/f]

porta, -ae [1/f]

scūtum, -ī [2/n]

specula, -ae [1/f]

____________________

1. cuspis, cuspidis [3/f]: spear point / tip
2. crista, -ae [1/f]: crest (on helmet)
3. galea, -ae [1/f]: helmet
4. hasta, -ae [1/f]: spear
5. pinna, -ae [1/f]: battlement / parapet crenellation
6. specula, -ae [1/f]: watchtower / lookout post
7. lōrīca, -ae [1/f] segmentāta: segmented armor (Roman body armour)
8. balteus, -ī [2/m]: shoulder belt / sword strap
9. gladius, -ī [2/m]: sword (short Roman sword)
10. cingulum, -ī [2/n] mīlitāre: military belt
11. porta, -ae [1/f]: gate
12. mūrus, -ī [2/m] / moenia, -um [3/n/pl]: wall / defensive walls
13. scūtum, -ī [2/n]: shield (large Roman shield)
14. ōcrea, -ae [1/f]: greave (leg armour)
15. caliga, -ae [1/f]: military sandal / boot

23.08.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [90] dependent uses [15] reported / indirect reason: quod and quia

If a journalist in a UK newspaper writes …

“The manager resigned because he stole money”

…he may well be sued! If it was never proved, then the journalist – to protect himself – would write:

“The manager resigned because he allegedly stole money”

Now the journalist is safe: he is reporting what the reason may have been or what somebody else claimed rather than a factual statement that is the journalist’s personal opinion. In other words, it becomes an indirect reason.

Similarly:

He could not have been guilty because he was abroad at the time.

He could not have been guilty because, he said / he claimed, he was abroad at the time.

The inclusion of a parenthetical he said, or he claimed moves the statement from a factual reason to one that is alleged, one that somebody else said rather than what the speaker believes.

That ‘shift’ cannot be conveyed in English by means of a verb form. In Latin, however, a shift from the indicative to the subjunctive mood can do precisely that.

[i] The conjunctions quod and quia are – by far – most often found with the indicative mood:

Quia ego hanc amō et haec mē amat (Plautus)

• Because I love her and she loves me.

Cūr igitur pācem nōlō? Quia turpis est. (Cicero)

• Why then do I not wish for peace? Because it is disgraceful.

Hoc ad tē scrīpsī, quod is mē accūsāre dē tē solēbat (Cicero)

• I wrote this to you because he was in the habit of grumbling to me about you.

Ita fit ut adsint proptereā quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia periculum vītant (Cicero)

• So it happens that they attend because they follow duty but are silent because they are avoiding danger.

In these examples Cicero gives his own reasons.

[ii] However, when the speaker is not giving his own reason, but the reason of somebody else, quod and quia will be with a verb in the subjunctive:

Noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs quod somnum capere nōn posset [subjunctive] (Cicero)

• Themistocles used to walk about at night because he could not sleep.

i.e. the speaker is recounting the reason given by Themistocles; the speaker is not offering his own reason.

We can describe this as a reported reason or an indirect reason. It does not have to be an “allegedly” statement such as you would find in a newspaper!

Compare: Noctū ambulābam quod somnum capere nōn poteram [indicative].

• I used to walk about night because I could not sleep.

This example from Cicero shows both indicative and subjunctive, the subjunctive stating an alleged or unreal reason as oppposed to factual reason i.e. the reason he himself gives:

• Haec idcircō omittō quod nōn gravissima sint [subjunctive], sed quia nunc sine teste dīcō [indicative] (Cicero)

And I omit these matters not because they are not very serious, but because now I am declaring without any witness.

[iii] Further examples

(1) With indicative

[i] Sōla hic mihi nunc videor, quia ille hinc abest quem ego amō praeter omnēs (Plautus)

• I do seem so lonely here now, because the one I love best is gone. 

[ii] Cūr negās? / Quia vēra didicī dīcere (Plautus)

• Why do you deny it? / Because I’ve learned to tell the truth.

[iii] Quia diēī extrēmum erat, proelium nōn inceptum [est] (Sallust)

• As it was almost the end of the day, the battle did not  start.

[iv] Quem locum Marius, quod ibi rēgis thēsaurī erant, summā vī capere intendit (Sallust)

• Marius tried to take this place with all of his forces, because the king’s treasures were there.

[v] Quia id quod neque est neque fuit neque futūrum est mihi praedicās (Plautus)

• Because what you tell me is not so, nor has it been, nor will it be.

[vi] Sed senātūs cōnsulta duo iam facta sunt odiōsa, quod in cōnsulem facta putantur (Cicero)

• But two decrees of the Senate which have already been passed are unpopular because they are thought to be directed against the consul.

(2) With subjunctive; although far less common, the subjunctive is being used to refer to what somebody else ‘claimed’ or thought:

[i] Mea māter īrāta est quia nōn redierim (Plautus)

• My mother is angry because I did not return.

[ii] Rediit quod sē oblītum nesciō quid dīceret (Cicero)

• He returned because he said he had forgotten something.

Note: nesciō quid; nesciō is not functioning here as a verb but as part of a set expression meaning ‘something’ [literally: I don’t know what]

[iii] Reprehendit, quia nōn semper quiērim (Cicero)

• He blames me because I have not always been able.

i.e. Cicero recounts somebody else’s reason for the blame; he is not saying that it is factual.

[iv] Sī quis requīrit, cūr Rōmae nōn sim … quia frequentiam illam nōn facile ferrem.

• If anyone asks why I am not in town … "because I could not put up with the crowd of visitors."

This is a nice example where the translator “quotes” what, in Cicero’s mind, other people might be ‘alleging’.

[v] What somebody saw in a dream:

Ego laeta vīsa sum quia soror vēnisset (Plautus)

• I seemed happy because my sister had come.

[vi] A two part statement from Cicero that describes allegations made against Manlius by Pomponius, a tribune of the plebs:

L. Mānliō … cum dictātor fuisset, M. Pompōnius tr(ibūnus). pl(ēbis). diem dīxit, (1) quod is paucōs sibi diēs ad dictātūram gerendam addidisset; crīminābātur etiam, (2) quod Titum fīlium … ab hominibus relēgāsset et rūrī habitāre iussisset.

L. Mānlīō … cum dictātor fuisset │ When L. Manlius … had been dictator, …

M. Pompōnius, tribūnus plēbis, diem dīxit │ M. Pomponius,  a tribune of the plebs named the day [i.e. for his trial = indicted him]

(1) quod is paucōs sibī diēs ad dictātūram gerendam addidisset;

• because he (Manlius) had added a few days for conducting his dictatorship [ = had extended his dictatorship beyond its expiration]

crīminābātur etiam │ he was also accused

(2) quod Titum fīlium … ab hominibus relēgāsset et rūrī habitāre iussisset.

• because he had banished his son Titus … from people [ = from having companionship with others] and had ordered him to live in the countryside.

[iv] Be careful not to misinterpret the use of quod in indirect statements. In certain circumstances quod can be translated as the conjunction ‘that’ but they are (1) referring to known facts or (2) offering reasons rather than reporting what, for example somebody said or thought:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/170226-level-3-indirect-statement.html

(1) quod: (the fact) that …

quod rediit ¦ nōbīs mīrābile vidētur (Cicero)

• (the fact) that he returned ¦ seems marvellous to us

praetereō ¦ quod eam sibī domum dēlēgit (Cicero)

• I pass over ¦ the fact that he chose that house for himself

i.e. these two do not ‘report’ an event, but express a reaction to something already known

(2) verbs of emotion / feeling are followed by either quod or quia; a way of differentiating the use of quod (or quia) in this context is mostly to interpret the meaning as because rather than ‘that’.

Quod scrībis . . . gaudeō.

• I am glad ¦ that you write.

i.e. The writer is offering a reason why he is glad; “I am glad because you are writing”

Gaudēmus quod ad tempus adestis.

• We rejoice ¦ that you are here on time.

Faciō libenter quod eam nōn possum praeterīre.

• I am glad ¦ that I cannot pass it by.

Gaudet quod vivit.

• He rejoices ¦ that he is alive.

Opportūnissima rēs accidit quod Germānī vēnērunt.

• A very fortunate thing happened, ¦ (namely) that the Germans came.

Optimum, quod sustulistī.

• It is a very good thing ¦ that you have removed [him].

Dolet mihi quod tū nunc stomachāris (Cicero)

• I'm sorry ¦ that you're angry now.

… quī ¦ quia nōn habuit ā mē turmās equitum ¦ fortasse suscēnset (Cicero)

• … who perhaps feels angry ¦ that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.