07.04.26: Level 3+; Subjunctive [14] the tenses [3] imperfect subjunctive [ii] practice

Put the verbs into the appropriate form of the imperfect subjunctive.

[i] First, identify the person and number of the verb

Example:

laudō:  first person singular

[ii] Then identify the infinitive of the verb

Infinitive: laudāre

[iii] Add the same personal ending to the infinitive

For the imperfect subjunctive, you simply attach the regular personal endings to the full infinitive:

-m for first person singular

So: laudāre + m > laudārem

[1]

1. vocō
2. monēs
3. scrībit
4. veniunt
5. cantāmus
6. tenētis
7. dūcis
8. dormiō
9. rogant
10. habet
11. petimus
12. scītis
13. parās
14. vidētis
15. currunt
16. capiō
17. pugnās
18. timet
19. mittimus
20. sentiunt

[2] Irregular verbs – but they still the imperfect subjunctive in the same way as regular verbs.

1. abeō
2. adest
3. eunt
4. ferimus
5. fert
6. fiunt
7. māvis
8. nōlō
9. nōn vult
10. potes
11. sum
12. vultis

____________________ 

[1] 

1. vocārem
2. monērēs
3. scrīberet
4. venīrent
5. cantārēmus
6. tenērētis
7. dūcerēs
8. dormīrem
9. rogārent
10. habēret
11. peterēmus
12. scīrētis
13. parārēs
14. vidērētis
15. currerent
16. caperem
17. pugnārēs
18. timēret
19. mitterēmus
20. sentīrent

[2]

1. abīrem
2. adesset
3. īrent
4. ferrēmus
5. ferret
6. fierent
7. māllēs
8. nōllem
9. nōllet
10. possēs
11. essem
12. vellētis

07.04.26: Level 3+; Subjunctive [13] the tenses [3] imperfect subjunctive [i]

The imperfect subjunctive is used widely in many different categories of subjunctive usage and will be referred to repeatedly when other subjunctive uses are discussed. It is important, therefore, to become familiar with it. Points to note: [i] it is easy to recognise [ii] it is easy to form, and [iii] all verbs – no exceptions – are formed in the same way.

[1] The present infinitive of the verb:

1^st: amāre

2^nd: habēre

3^rd: vīvere

3^rd-iō: capere

4^th: audīre

[2] + the personal endings; the only slight difference is that, in the 2^nd singular and the 1^st and 2^nd plural, the /e/ of the original infinitive ending lengthens > /ē/*

amārem

amārēs*

amāret

amārēmus*

amārētis*

amārent

Similarly:

habērem, habērēs etc.

vīverem, vīverēs etc.

caperem, caperēs etc.

audīrem, audīrēs etc.

That system of infinitive + personal ending applies to all verbs, even irregular ones:

eō, īre: go > imperfect subjunctive: īrem, īrēs, īret, īrēmus, īrētis, īrent

sum, esse: be > imperfect subjunctive: essem, essēs, esset, essemus, essetis, essent

possum, posse: be able > imperfect subjunctive: possem, possēs, posset, possēmus, possētis, possent

volō, velle: want > imperfect subjunctive: vellem, vellēs, vellet, vellēmus, vellētis, vellent

Video: Latin Tutorial –  “Use the trick, and you’ll get the result.”

06.04.24: Describing objects [11]; stone and related materials (vi) Before you go out … make a will

However, according to Juvenal (Satires 3), Roman citizens did not always discard their broken pottery in such an environmentally friendly way …

Respice nunc alia ac dīversa perīcula noctis: │ Now look at other, quite different dangers of the night:

quod spatium tēctīs sublīmibus unde cerebrum  / testa* ferit, … │ how much room there is – from those lofty roofs — for a potsherd to smash your skull!

*here referring to a potsherd, a broken shard of pottery

… quotiēns rīmōsa et curta fenestrīs / vāsa cadant, quantō percussum pondere signent / et laedant silicem, … │ How often cracked and battered pots fall from windows, striking the pavement with such weight that they mark and mar the stone!

curtus, -a, -um: broken

rīmōsus, -a, -um: cracked

… possīs ignāvus habērī │ You might be thought a fool,

et subitī cāsus inprōvidus, … │ and careless of sudden disaster,

… intestātus eās: │ if you go out to dinner without first making your will

06.04.26: Describing objects [10]; stone and related materials (v)

[i] argilla, -ae [1/f]: clay; the word is derived from Gk: ἄργιλλος [árgillos]: white clay < ἀργός [argós]: white. Therefore, some listings refer to it as ‘white clay’ but, rather than being overly analytical, the term describes functional, mouldable clay such as a potter would use

ex argillā: made of clay

ōlla ex argillā │ a clay pot

Septimō oppugnātiōnis diē maximō coortō ventō ferventēs fūsilī ex argillā glandēs fundīs et fervefacta iacula in casās … iacere coepērunt (Caesar) │ On the seventh day of the attack, when a very strong wind had arisen, they began to sling red-hot bullets of clay and hurl blazing darts onto the huts

[ii] lutum, -ī [2/n]: [i] mud; [ii] clay

luteus, -a, -um: of mud / clay

homulus, ex argillā et lutō fictus (Cicero) │ a little man made from clay and mud

[iii] fingō, -ere, finxī, fictus [3]: shape, fashion, form

> fictilis, -e: referring to anything made of earth or clay; ceramic; pottery

vāsa fictilia: clay vessels; terracotta containers

iam nimis multōs audiō Corinthī et Athēnārum ōrnāmenta laudantīs mīrantīsque et antefīxa fictilia deōrum Rōmānōrum rīdentis (Livy) │ I hear far too many people praising and admiring those which adorn Athens and Corinth and laughing at the clay images of the Roman gods standing in front of their temples.

[iv] testa, -ae [1/f]: [i] a piece of burned clay, brick, tile; [ii] an object made of earthenware e.g. a pot, urn

testeus, -a, -um: earthenware

testāceus, -a, -um: covered with tiles / bricks

From one section of Vitruvius’ work:

parietēs caementīciae: partitions of rubble work

pīlae lapideae: stone pillars

strūctūrae testāceae: brick walls

> Italian Monte Testaccio; also known as Monte dei Cocci; cocci (Ital.) referring to broken pottery: artificial mound in Rome consisting almost entirely of testae, fragments of broken ancient Roman pottery, almost all of which are discarded amphorae dating from the period of the Roman Empire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Testaccio

https://repository.avermaete.ethz.ch/commons_register/monte-testaccio/

[v] plasticus, -a, -um: (Classical) adjective referring to anything connected with moulding or modelling

> Neo-Latin: made of plastic

In regiōne maritimā inter Californiam et Īnsulās Havaiānās patente tanta ēiectāmentōrum plasticōrum cōpia fluctuat, ut magnitūdine āream Francogalliae ter excēdat (Nūntiī Latīnī: 2018) │ In the open waters between California and Hawaii, such an amount of plastic waste bobs around that it exceeds thrice the area of France.

“Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made” – which is 9.2 billion metric tons more than the Romans ever made.

05.04.26: Level 2; Vincent (Latin Reader); LVII; Mount Graupius

Translate:

Hostēs, ubi illās rēs cognōvērunt, impetum contrā legiōnem nōnam, quae erat minor numerō, subitō fēcērunt. Agricola equitēs celeriter praemīsit et omnibus cum cōpiīs contendit. Tandem hostēs in palūdēs et silvās fugae sē mandābant; sed maiōrem numerum mīlitum convocābant atque, ubi līberōs et fēminās in loca tūtiōra mīsērunt, bellum iterum gerere parābant. Agricola, ubi praemīsit classem, quae terrōrem magnum hostibus faciēbat, cum exercitū ad montem Graupium pervēnit.

Mōns Graupius: the exact location is unknown and debated. Proposed sites include areas in northeast Scotland, such as Aberdeenshire or near the Grampian Mountains; the name “Graupius” may be related, but this is uncertain.

____________________

When the enemy learned of these things, they suddenly made an attack against the Ninth Legion, which was smaller in number. Agricola quickly sent the cavalry ahead and advanced with all his forces. At last the enemy committed themselves to flight into the marshes and forests; but they were gathering a greater number of soldiers and, when they had sent their children and women into safer places, were preparing to wage war again. Agricola, after he had sent the fleet ahead, which caused great terror to the enemy, arrived with the army at Mount Graupius.

04.04.26: Level 1; Comenius (1658); Eurōpa [2]; the Comenius list

Whatever you read in Latin, you can’t divorce the language from the period in which it was written or the people who were using it. While the Comenius list of European countries is a good reference point for the Latin nouns themselves, you also get a little insight into the way in which Europe looked in the mid-17^th century.

Many of the countries Comenius lists were not named by the Romans, or their labelling of regions differed from our own. The list was made in 1658 and – as we know – things have moved on (not necessarily for the better). The words can be Late or Mediaeval, or Neo-Latin, and, where there is perhaps a lack of clarity in what region Comenius is referring to, I’ve added some notes and links, together with some other countries (in bold) that he doesn’t mention.

This time, the image is from the American edition of the book which matches the numbers listed.

[1]

The chief Kingdoms in our Europe are Spain, 1. France, 2. Italy, 3.

In Eurōpā nostrā sunt Rēgna prīmāria, Hispānia, 1. Galliā, 2. Ītalia, 3.

England (Britain), 4. Scotland, 5. Ireland, 6.
Anglia (Britannia), 4. Scōtia, 5. Hibernia, 6.

Scōtia, -ae [1/f]: Scotland; a synonym for Calēdonia, -ae [1/f], the latter term used by the Romans

Cambria, -ae [1/f]: Wales

Portugallia, -ae [1/f]: Portugal

[2] Germany, 7. Bohemia, 8. Hungary, 9.

Germānia, 7. Bohēmia, 8. Hungaria, 9.

Austria, -ae [1/f]: Austria

Helvētia, -ae [1/f]: Switzerland 

Bohēmia, -ae [1/f]: only referred to the western part of what is now the Czech Republic

Cechia, -ae [1/f]: Czechia

Slovācia, -ae [1/f]: Slovakia

[3] Croatia, 10. Dacia, 11. Sclavonia, 12. Greece, 13, Thrace, 14.

Croātia, 10, Dācia, 11, Sclavonia, 12. Graecia, 13, Thrācia, 14.

Dācia, -ae [1/f]: The Dacian kingdom was conquered by the Romans and later named Romania after them: Rōmānia, -ae [1/f] (Late Latin): Romania

Sclavonia, -ae [1/f]: Slavonia, region in north-eastern part of modern Croatia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavonia

Thrācia, -ae [1/f]: Thrace, geographical region in SE Europe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrace

Bulgaria, -ae [1/f]: Bulgaria

Macedonia, -ae [1/f]: Macedonia

Moldavia, -ae [1/f]: Moldova

Serbia, -ae [1/f]: Serbia

Slovēnia, -ae [1/f]: Slovenia

[4] Podolia, 15. Tartary, 16. Lituania, 17. Poland, 18. The Netherlands, 19.

Podōlia, 15. Tartaria, 16. Lītuānia, 17. Polōnia, 18. Belgium, 19.

There are historical reasons why Comenius uses Belgium to refer to the Netherlands. However, that is beyond the scope of this group, enough to say that Gallia Belgica was a province of the Roman empire comprising NE France, most of Belgium and Luxemburg, and parts of the Netherlands and Germany.

Belgium, -ī [2/n] / Belgica, -ae [1/f]: Belgium

Hollandia, -ae [1/f]: Holland; Nederlandia, -ae [1/f]: Netherlands

Podōlia, -ae [1/f]: a historic region of Eastern Europe in parts of present-day Ukraine and Moldova

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podolia

Tartaria, -ae [1/f]: Tartary

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartary

Estonia, -ae [1/f]: Estonia

Latvi(j)a, -ae [1/f]: Latvia

Lūxemburgum, -ī [2/n]: Luxembourg

[5] Denmark, 20. Norway, 21. Swethland, 22. Lapland, 23. Finland, 24. Lisland, 25.

Dānia, 20. Norvegia, 21. Suecia, 22. Lappia, 23. Finnia, 24. Livonia, 25.

Finnia, -ae [1/f]; Finland; synonym: Finlandia, -ae [1/f]

Livonia, -ae [1/f]: Lisland, region in the Baltic, south of the Gulf of Finland, now divided and constituting southern Estonia and northern Latvia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonia

Suecia, -ae [1/f]:Sweden; the archaic English word ‘Swethland’ is derived from OE Swēoland

Groenlandia, -ae [1/f]: Greenland 

Īslandia, -ae [1/f]: Iceland

[6] Prussia, 26. Muscovy, 27. and Russia, 28.

Borussia, 26. Muscovia, 27. Russia, 28.

Muscovia, -ae [1/f]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Moscow

Ūcrāīna, -ae [1/f]: Ukraine

And – as we approach 2026 – let’s hope, for all the people in the last two in the list, that the fighting stops.

04.04.26: Level 1; Comenius (1658); Eurōpa [1]

A 17^th century geography lesson

Image #1: The illustrations in the work of Comenius are generally good given that they’re targeted at schoolkids. I suspect, however, that his illustrator must have had a day off when the map was drawn and he got one of his pupils to do it! The Iberian Peninsula has gone a very funny shape – and Scandinavia looks as if it’s about to break apart. It’s surprising, since in the mid-17th century there are very accurate maps, and so maybe Comenius couldn’t get his hands on one. I couldn’t resist publishing it together with [image #2] a 1667 map by Marchetti.

Ubi habitās? │ Where do you live?

Ubi nātus [m] es / ubi nāta [f] es? │ Where were you born?

Unde oriundus [m] / oriunda [f] es? │ Where are you from?

First things first: Latin deals differently when referring either to countries or to towns / cities. Step-by-step: focus only on the countries because that is easy to do and introduces you to an important part of Latin grammar.

[1] Almost all the countries end in -a including the continent itself:

Britannia

Hispānia

Germānia

Ītalia

Eurōpa

[2] All of these belong to the same declension: the first declension

[3] When you say ‘in’ a country or ‘from’ a country you need prepositions:

in: in / on

ē (before a consonant) / ex (before a vowel or a consonant or /h/): literally ‘out of’

[4] The difference – in this situation – is slight:

Britannia: Britain

In Britanniā habitō │ I live in Britain

Hispānia > In Hispāniā nātus [masculine] sum │ I was born in Spain

Germānia > In Germāniā nāta [feminine] sum │ I was born in Germany

Graecia > Ex Graeciā oriundus [masculine] sum │ I’m (originally) from Greece

Ītalia > Ex Ītaliā oriunda [feminine] sum │ I’m (originally) from Italy

The ending -ā is the ablative case. It has many different functions but one of them is with certain prepositions. All that is happening is that short /a/ becomes long /ā/. In most original Latin texts that is not indicated, but it is in the textbooks and edited works, and the difference is noted in speech.

[4] Latin verbs – unless clarity is needed – do not use pronouns; the ending makes it clear who is performing the action.

Ubi habitās? │ Where do you (talking to one person) live?

In Galliā habitō │ I live in France.

[5]

sum: I am

es: you (singular)

Unde oriundus / oriunda es? │ Literally: Where are you descended from? = Where are you (originally) from?

Ex Ītaliā oriundus / oriunda sum │ I am (originally) from Italy.

[6]

Note that Latin uses sum and es to express where you were born even though the verb is present tense:

Ubi nātus es? │ Where were you born?

In Polōniā nātus / nāta sum. │ I was born in Poland.

[7] Comenius lists the Netherlands as Belgium (more on that in the next post) with the equivalent English spelling, but that is an alternative. Latin also has Belgica. However, to show the difference, Latin Belgium is not 1^st declension, but 2^nd (ending in -um) and it has a diffferent ending:

Belgium > In Belgiō habitō. / Ex Belgiō oriundus (-a) sum.

Belgica > In Belgicā habitō. / Ex Belgicā oriundus (-a) sum.

This is why it’s important to become familiar with the declensions since the nouns take different endings depending on the declension to which they belong.