Level 3+: all posts on impersonal verbs

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [1] introduction; weather expressions

In Latin, impersonal verbs do not have a personal subject i.e. they are not used with a nominative subject that performs the action. Instead, they typically express natural phenomena, mental states, necessity, obligation, emotion, or general events, and are normally used only in the third person singular.

In English, we often express impersonal ideas using the dummy subject “it”, as in:

It is raining.

It seems that…

It is necessary to…

Latin does not use a dummy subject, and so these ideas are expressed by impersonal verb forms alone, without a grammatical subject.

Example:

pluit: it is raining

There is no nominative subject; the verb stands by itself.

Latin impersonal verbs fall into several main semantic groups. Here we will look at:

[1] natural phenomena i.e. describing weather or natural events, for example:

grandinat: it is hailing

pluit: it is raining

ningit: it is snowing

tonat: it is thundering

Similarly:

French: il pleut; German: es regnet

Latin, however, does not use any pronoun.

[i] plumbō et saxīs grandinat. (Pacuvius)

• it’s hailing with lead and rocks

[ii] At quārē aliquandō nōn fulgurat et tonat (Seneca)

• But why is there no lightning sometimes and yet it thunders?

[iii] prius quam lūcet adsunt (Plautus)

• before it is daybreak they are with me

[iv] intereā tōtō nōn sētius aëre ningit (Virgil)

• Meanwhile it snows no less over the whole sky

[v] cum pluit in terrīs et ventī nūbila portant (Lucretius)

• when it rains on earth and winds bring clouds

[vi] cum tonat, … fulminat, cum serēnat (Minucius)

• when it thunders, … lightning strikes, when it’s clear

[vii] Ante rorat* quam pluit (Varro)

• it drizzles before it rains

*rorat can also refer to the formation of dew

Inchoative verbs may also function impersonally, for example:

• calēscit: it is getting hot; it’s starting to get hot
• frigēscit: it’s turning cold
• vesperāscit: it grows late

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/inchoative%20verbs

The entire topic of weather can be found at:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/topic%3A%20weather

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [2] emotional states [i]

[i]

pudet: it shames

miseret: it moves to pity

paenitet: it causes regret

taedet: it wearies

piget: it disgusts; it annoys

[ii] The person who experiences these states becomes the object of the impersonal verb, but the impersonal construction in Latin will most often change to a personal construction in English:

pudet:  it shames

mē pudet │  literally: it shames me / it causes me shame

• I am ashamed

miseret: it moves to pity

mē miseret │ literally: it moves me to pity

• I feel pity / compassion

paenitet: it causes regret

taedet:  it wearies

taedet ipsum Pompēium vehementerque paenitet (Cicero)

• Pompey himself is weary of it and deeply regrets it.

piget, -ēre | it disgusts; it annoys

simul mē piget (Plautus)

• At the same time it irks me.

[iii]  With these impersonal verbs (1) the person affected is in the accusative case:

(2) the cause of that emotional state is in the genitive case:

(1) mē [accusative] (2) huius factī [genitive] paenitet

[literally: it causes me regret of this deed]

• I regret (2) this deed.

(1) mē [accusative] piget (2) ignāviae tuae [genitive]

• (1) I am disgusted (2) by your laziness.

(1) mē [accusative] cīvitātis mōrum [genitive] piget taedetque (Cicero)

• (1) I am sick and tired (2) of the ways of the state.

Crasse, (1) pudet mē [accusative] tuī [genitive] (Cicero)

• Crassus, (1) I am ashamed (2) of you.

(2) vestrī [genitive] (1) mē [accusative] pudet miseretque (Tacitus)

• (2) For you (1) I feel shame and compassion.

Level 3+ (review): impersonal verbs [3] emotional states [ii] further examples

[i]

Nōn audeō id dīcere equidem, et mē pudet tam cito dē sententiā esse dēiectum (Cicero)

• I do not indeed dare to say that, and I am ashamed to have been so quickly cast down from my opinion.

nōn paenitet mē (Cicero)

• I don’t regret it.

valdē mē paenitēbat (Cicero)

• I was very sorry [literally: it caused me regret]

[ii]

The impersonal verb may be used without a pronoun:

periī, pudet (Plautus)

• I’m done for, I’m ashamed.

[iii]

The impersonal verb may be followed by an infinitive or with a neuter pronoun as the subject

Taedet nōs in lūdō sedēre.

• We are bored with sitting in school [literally: It tires us to sit in school].

Mē, mī Pompōnī, valdē paenitet vīvere (Cicero)

• My dear Pomponius, I am heartily sick of life [literally: I regret to live / living]

Iam dūdum pudet tam multa scrībere (Cicero)

• For some time past I have been ashamed to write so many things.

Mē hoc paenitet.

• I am ashamed of this.

[iv] accusative of person affected and genitive of the cause:

taedet omnīnō eōs [accusative] vītae [genitive] (Cicero)

• These people are completely tired of life.

Pudet mē patris (Cicero)

• I’m ashamed of (his) father,

mea māter, tuī mē miseret, meī piget (Ennius)

• My mother, I pity you; I am disgusted with myself.

Quārē voluntātis mē meae numquam paenitēbit, cōnsiliī paenitet. (Cicero)

• So I shall never regret my resolve; but I regret the plan.

pudēbit tē, inquam, illīus tabulae  (Cicero)

• You will be ashamed, I say, of that picture

[v] accusative of person omitted, leaving only the genitive

Chirurgiae [genitive] taedet (Cicero)

• I have grown tired of surgery.

Taedet mentiōnis (Caecilius)

• The mention of it is wearisome [ = I don’t like to talk about it]

Crēdō iam omnium taedēbat (Terence)

• I think he was finally tired of them all.

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [4] necessity, obligation and related ideas [i]

(1)

oportet: it is proper, it is right

necesse est: it is necessary

decet: it is becoming / fitting/ proper / suitable

dēdecet: it is unbecoming / unfitting / improper / unsuitable

(2)

libet: it is pleasing; it is agreeable

licet: it is permitted

(3)

opus est: there is need

(4)

rēfert: it matters / concerns / it is important (of importance)

interest: it interests / concerns / makes a difference / it is important (of importance)

(1)

oportet: it is proper, it is right

necesse est: it is necessary

decet: it is becoming / fitting/ proper / suitable

dēdecet: it is unbecoming / unfitting / improper / unsuitable

[i] They are followed by an infinitive indicating what is proper / necessary to do:

necesse est ¦ proficīscī

• it is necessary ¦ to set out

[ii] the person for whom the action is proper / necessary is expressed in the accusative case:

Eum necesse est proficīscī.

• It is necessary for him to set out.

Mox necesse erit mē et mātrem iter facere.

• Soon it will be necessary for my mother and (for) me to make a journey.

Quid mē oportet facere, ubi tū tālis vir falsum autumās? (Plautus)

• What ought I to do, when a man such as you asserts something false?

Nōn tē mī īrāscī decet (Plautus)

• You oughtn't [literally: it isn’t proper for you] to be cross with me.

Huic decet statuam statuī ex aurō (Plautus)

• It is fitting for a statue of gold to be set up for him [ = a gold statue ought to be …].

Orātōrem vēro īrāscī minimē decet, simulāre nōn dedecet. (Cicero)

• It is by no means fitting for an orator to lose his temper; to feign (it) is not unbecoming.

(2) The following expressions may be followed by an infinitive and, if expressed, the dative of the person.

[i] libet: it is pleasing; it is agreeable

Dīc quod libet (Plautus)

• Say what you want [literally: what is pleasing]

libet perlegere hās (Plautus)

• I’d like to read through this.

Ut libet ¦ quid tibi [dative] libet fac (Plautus)

• Suit yourself [literally: as is pleasing (to you)], ¦ do what suits you.

[ii] licet: it is permitted

Nōn licet manēre – cēna coquitur – dum cēnem modo? (Plautus)

• May I not stay [literally: is it not permitted] –  dinner's being cooked – just till I've dined?

nunc licet mihi [dative] līberē quidvīs loquī (Plautus)

• Now I'm permitted to speak freely about anything

nimis vīlest vīnum atque amor, sī ēbriō [dative] atque amantī [dative] impūne facere quod lubeat licet (Plautus)

• Drink and love are far too cheap, if a drunkard and a lover can do what he likes without any consequence.

(3) opus est: there is need

Sī quid ¦ opus est, imperā (Plautus)

• If there is need of ¦ anything, give the order

Quid opust [opus + est] ? (Plautus)

• What’s the use?

What is needed is in the ablative case:

Quid eō [ablative] est opus? (Plautus)

• What is the use of that [literally: What need is there …]?

Quid opust ānulō? (Plautus)

• A ring? What for? [literally: What need is there for a ring?]

Eiulātiōne haud opus est, oculīs haud lacrimantibus (Plautus)

• There’s no need for howling nor crying eyes.

The person who has the need is expressed in the dative case:

Mihi [dative: person needing] pecūniā [ablative: what is needed] opus est. │ I need money [literally: To me there is need of money]

Nōbīs auxiliō opus est. │ We need help.

Tibi cōnsiliō opus erit. │ You will need advice.

Quid eō mī opus est? (Plautus)

• What use is that to me?

Tum nōbīs [dative: person needing] opus est sūmptū [ablative: what is needed] (Plautus)

• Then we need expenses.

Multīs et multigeneribus opus est tibi mīlitibus (Plautus)

• You need many recruits of many sorts, too.

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [5] necessity, obligation and related ideas [ii] further examples

Translations are idiomatic and do not always reflect the literal meaning.

[1]

Pater vocat mē, eum sequor, eius dictō imperiō sum audiēns; ut fīlium bonum patrī esse oportet (Plautus)

• My father calls me; I follow him; I am obedient to his word and command—as a good son ought to be to his father.

[2]

mihi necesse est īre hinc (Plautus)

• I need to go from here.

[3]

CONGRIO

Quid, stolide, clāmās? │ What are you yelling for, stupid?

EUCLIO

Quia ad trīs virōs** iam ego dēferam nōmen tuom*. │ Because I am going to report your name to the police this instant.

CONGRIO

Quam ob rem? │ Why?

EUCLIO

Quia cultrum habēs. │ Because you have a knife.

CONGRIO

Cocum decet. │ And so a cook should.

*tuom = tuum

** trīs [trēs] virōs; trēsvirī: three men jointly holding responsibility for public office including overseer of prisons

[4]

At pol ego ibi sum, esse ubi miserum hominem decet atque īnfortūnātum (Plautus)

• By Pollux! But here I am where a wretched, unlucky man should be.

[5]

Bene mēcum agitur sī hoc ūnum senectūtem meam dēdecet (Seneca the Younger)

• It is going well for me if this is the only thing that is unbecoming to my old age.

[6]

Coquite, facite, festīnāte nunciam, quantum libet (Plautus)

• Cook away, work away, hurry around now to your hearts' content [literally: as much as it pleases]

[7]

Pol mē haud paenitet, sī licet bonī dīmidium mihi dīvidere cum Iove (Plautus)

• By Pollux, I do not at all regret it, if I may share half of the blessing with Jupiter.

[8]

LEONIDA

Certum est* crēdere │ I’m determined to trust you

LIBANUS

Licet audācter │ You can – boldly

*Literally: It is certain, but translates in various ways to express determination:

I’m determined; my mind’s made up; you can count on that

nunc certum est mihi (Plautus) │ I’m now resolved

[9]

Haud sciō quid eō opus sit, quae nec lac nec lānam ūllam habent (Plautus)

• I don’t know what need there is of that; they’ve neither milk nor any wool.

[10]

nam istīc fortasse aurō est opus … atque eō fortasse iam opust (Plautus)

• For there’s possibly need of gold in the affair … and furthermore there’s possibly need of it now.

[11]

itidem habet petasum ac vestītum: tam cōnsimilest [cōnsimilis + est]  atque ego; sūra, pēs, statūra, tōnsus, oculī, nāsum vel labra, mālae, mentum, barba, collus: tōtus. quid verbīs opust?

• He has on a travelling hat, and clothes the same as mine. He's as like me as I am myself! Same leg – foot – height – haircut – eyes – nose – lips, even – jaw – chin – beard – neck – everything. What need is there for words?

Quid verbīs opus [opus + est]? What need is there for words? [i.e. Enough said!]

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [6] interest; rēfert

Both verbs have a double function and, depending on that function, can have different meanings:

• intersum, interesse, interfuī: be / lie between; differ; be present / attend
• referō, referre, rettulī, relātus: many meanings including bring / carry back; relate / report

Here, however, we focus on their impersonal uses in the 3^rd person singular:

[1] interest: it interests / concerns / makes a difference / it is important (of importance)

Hoc inter mē et illōs interest (Cicero)

• The difference between me and them is this.

At quid interest inter periūrum et mendācem? (Cicero)

• What is the difference between a perjurer and a liar?

Quid interest ¦ dare tē in manūs argentum amantī hominī adulēscentī? (Plautus)

• What difference does it make ¦ for you to hand money to a young man who loves (women)?

Nihil enim interest (Cicero)

• For it’s of no importance / It does not matter (to me).

Sī nihil interest, nūlla rēgula est (Cicero)

• If nothing makes a difference / if there is no difference, there is no rule.

Neque … multum interest utrum mē hominēs in oppidō videant an in viā (Cicero)

• nor … does it much matter whether people see me in a town or on the road

When expressing the person affected:

interest: + (1) the genitive, or (2) the feminine ablative singular of the possessive adjective e.g. meā, nostrā etc. but with no noun expressed

(1)

nam eōrum quoque vehementer interest (Cicero)

• For it’s also a matter of great importance to them.

Eius aliquid interest vidērī … (Cicero)

• It is of some importance to him to appear …

Quid autem illīus interest … ubi sīs? (Cicero)

• What does it matter to him where you are?

Omnium interest valēre.

• It concerns all / it is in the interest of all to keep well.

(2)

Illud meā magnī interest (Cicero)

• That’s of great interest to me.

Meā nihil interest (Cicero)

• It’s of no interest to me / It does not matter to me.

Permagnī nostrā interest (Cicero)

• It is of the highest importance to us [ = to me]

This example shows both genitive and ablative used in the same sentence:

Magnī interest Cicerōnis [genitive], vel meā [ablative] potius vel mehercule utrīusque [genitive] (Cicero)

• It is a matter of great concern to my son*, or rather to me, or rather upon my word to both of us

*i.e. his son shares the cognomen

The extent of the concern is expressed by:

[i] the genitive

Illud meā magnī interest │ That is of great interest to me.

Permagnī nostrā interest │ It is of the highest importance to us

[ii] adverbs such as maximē:

Hoc maximē interest │ This is of very great / the greatest importance.

[iii] neuter pronouns

Neque … multum interest │ Nor does it matter much.

Meā nihil interest │ It’s of no interest to me.

[2] rēfert: it matters / concerns / it is important (of importance)

Quid rēfert? (Cicero)

• What does that matter?

The person affected is expressed by the ablative case:

Nam quid est? num meā [ablative] rēfert? (Plautus)

• Well what is it? Something that concerns me?

Tuā istuc rēfert maximē (Plautus)

• That business concerns you the most.

Tuā quod nīl rēfert, nē cūrēs (Plautus)

[literally: do not take care of what is of no concern to you]

• Keep your nose out of other people’s business!

‘nōn nostrā' inquit 'magis quam vestrā rēfert vōs nōn rebellāre’ (Livy)

• "It is not," he told them, "more in our interest than in yours, that you should not rebel”

GELASIMUS

Ōrātōrēs tū accipis, habeās tibi. │ You’re entertaining orators, you may keep them.

EPIGNOMUS

Tuā pol rēfert. │ By Pollux, this concerns you.

GELASIMUS

Enim, sī quidem meā rēfert, opera ūtere. │ Well then, if it really concerns me, make use of my services.

(Plautus)

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [7] placet; displicet; iuvat; dēlectat; vidētur

placet: it pleases

displicet: it displeases

iuvat: it pleases; it delights

dēlectat: it pleases; it delights

vidētur: it seems

Like interest and rēfert discussed in the previous post, a number of other verbs are not inherently impersonal but can be used in impersonal constructions.

[1] placet: it pleases

Videāmus, sī placet. │ Let us see if (literally) it pleases [or, depending on context, if you like]

[i] As with other impersonal constructions, the person affected may be implied by context rather than directly stated:

Pergāmus igitur, quō placet (Cicero) │ Therefore, let us go to wherever it pleases [ = wherever we want]

[ii] The person affected is in the dative case:

placet ¦ mihi [dative]│ Literally: it is pleasing ¦ to me; English would most often rework the construction to make the person affected the subject of the sentence: I like it.

French still retains this construction in, for example, s’il vous plaît [literally: if it pleases you]

placuit ¦ eī (Cicero) │ it pleased ¦ him [was pleasing ¦ to him]

sī ¦ dīs ¦ placet │ if it pleases ¦ the gods [is pleasing ¦ to the gods]

senātuī ¦ placet │ it pleases ¦ the Senate [is pleasing ¦ to the Senate] = the Senate decrees

Placet hoc tibi? (Cicero) │ Does this please you? / Do you approve of this?

[iii] The verb does not always function impersonally: it may take an expressed subject, or an infinitive phrase functioning as the grammatical subject.

In arce Athēnīs statiō mea nunc placet (Cicero)

• I like my residence now on the Acropolis at Athens [literally: my residence is pleasing …]

Nōn placet M. Antōniō cōnsulātus meus. At placuit P. Servīliō, … (Cicero)

Literally: My consulship is not pleasing to Marcus Antonius. But it was pleasing to Publius Servilius, …

• Marcus Antonius disapproves of my consulship; but it was approved of by Publius Servilius …

Lūdōs Antī spectāre nōn placet (Cicero)

• I do not wish to see the games at Antium [literally: it does not please (me) to see…]

i.e. Seeing the games does not please (me): the infinitive phrase acts as the subject of placet.

[2] The opposite of placet is displicet: it displeases; again, the person affected is in the dative case.

Note this first example where the verb is not always used in the 3^rd person:

Displiceō mihi nec sine summō scrībō dolōre (Cicero)

• I am displeased with myself nor am I writing without the utmost pain.

Mihi vērō, iūdicēs, nōn displicet (Cicero)

• But, judges, it does not displease me.

Varrōnī quidem displicet cōnsilium puerī (Cicero)

• Varro, for his part, dislikes the boy’s plan.

Placet Stōicīs omnia peccāta esse paria; at hoc Antiochō vehementissimē displicet (Cicero)

• It pleases the Stoics [ = the Stoics hold] that all sins are equal, but this strongly displeases Antiochus.

Quodne vōbīs placeat, displiceat mihi? (Plautus)

• Should that which pleases you, be displeasing to me? [ = Must I dislike what you like?]

Quoniam tibi nōn omnīnō displicet dēfīnīre (Cicero)

• Since it does not altogether displease you to define [ = As you do not entirely disapprove of definition]

[3]

iuvō, -āre [1]: [i] help, benefit, support; [ii] delight, please

dēlectō, -āre [1]: delight, charm, please

The verbs regularly take the accusative of the person or thing affected, whether used personally or impersonally.

(1) personal use

Audentīs Fortūna iuvat (Vergil)

• Fortune favours the brave.

Venātiō dūrīque piscēs et ex domesticīs animālibus assa carō maximē iuvant. (Celsus)

• Venison and hard fish and roasted meat of domestic animals are especially advantageous.

Nōn lapis hanc gemmaeque iuvant (Tibullus)

• Neither precious stone nor jewels delight her.

(2) impersonal use

Quod iuvat, id semper faciant (Sallust)

• Let them always do what pleases (them)

Quid autem mē iuvat? (Cicero)

• But how does it help me?

Neque umquam quicquam mē iuvat quod edō domī (Plautus)

• And nothing that I eat at home ever pleases me.

Et tē et mē iuvat fābulās Plautī spectāre.

• It pleases both you and me to watch the plays of Plautus [= Both you and I like to watch]

Ut iuvat castella contrā undās spūmiferās aedificāre!

• How pleasant it is to build little forts against the foaming waves!

Nec tibi mōbilitās minor est, sī forte volantem aut gemināre pilam iuvat aut revocāre cadentem (Laus Pisonis: author unknown)

• Nor is your nimbleness any less, if by chance it is your pleasure to return the flying ball⁠ or (to) recover it when falling to the ground.

dēlectō, -āre [1]: delight, charm, please

Ōtium tē dēlectat (Cicero)

• Leisure delights you.

Mē vērō nihil dēlectat aliud nisi cōnsilium et litterae tuae (Cicero)

• But nothing else indeed pleases me except your advice and your letters.

mēque … hoc ipsum nihil agere et plānē cessāre dēlectat (Cicero)

• And this very thing — to do nothing and to be completely idle — delights me.

Catullus 103:

aūt sōdēs mĭhĭ rēddĕ dĕcēm sēstērtĭă Sīlō│ If you don’t mind, Silo, either give me back the ten sesterces

deīnde ēstō quāmuīs saēvŭs ĕt īndŏmĭtŭs │ Then be as wild and unrestrained as you like

aūt sī tē nūmmī dēlēctānt dēsĭnĕ quaēsō │ Or, if money [literally; coins] delights you, please stop

lēno ēsse ātque īdēm saēvŭs ĕt īndŏmĭtŭs. │ being a pimp and at the same time wild and unrestrained.

(Catullus 103)

mē pedibus dēlectat claudere verba (Horace)

• It delights me to enclose words in feet [i.e. metrical feet / poetic metre].

[4] vidētur

[i] the passive form of videō, -ēre [2] see, like any other passive verb, can have a singular or plural subject and be used in any tense; its passive meaning is “is / are seen” but it frequently translates as “seem(s)”

(1) In these first examples, the passive verb has a distinct subject although note that, in translation, an impersonal construction using “it seems”  can sometimes convey the same idea.

Dī immortālēs, iterum gnātus videor (Plautus)

• Great Heavens! I seem to have been born again. [It seems that I have been born again.]

Scelestus ¦ tibi [dative] ¦ vidētur Chrysalus? (Plautus)

• Does Chrysalus seem a criminal ¦ to you? [ = Do you think Chrysalus is a criminal?]

Ut videntur dērīdere nōs (Plautus)

• How they seem to be mocking us.

omnēs videntur ¦ scīre (Plautus)

• All seem / everybody seems ¦ to know [It seems that everybody knows.]

Ita mihi videntur omnia, mare terra caelum, cōnsequī.

Literally: Thus all things / everything, sea, land, and sky, seem / seems to me to be pursuing (me)

• So it seems to me that everything, sea, land and sky, is pursuing me.

Ac mihi vidētur mātrem valdē, ut dēbet, amāre tēque mīrificē (Cicero)

• But to me he seems to love [it seems to me that he loves] his mother greatly, as he should, and is extremely fond of you.

Cui vidēberis bella? (Catullus)

• To whom will you seem pretty?

Tertiā vigiliā, quā minimē arduus ad nostrās mūnītiōnēs ascēnsus vidēbātur, omnibus cōpiīs repente ex oppidō ēruptiōnem fēcērunt (Caesar)

• In the third watch, on the side where the ascent to our fieldworks seemed least steep, they made a sudden sally from the town in full force.

(2) vidētur can stand alone as an impersonal verb or be followed by an infinitive construction or refer to a previous statement:

Vix vidētur fierī posse (Plautus)

Literally: it scarcely seems to be able to happen

• It scarcely seems possible.

Hinc enim mihi dextra vōx aurīs, ut vidētur, verberat (Plautus)

• Yes, a voice from the right here, as it seems, strikes my ear.

Depending on context, there can be an implication that something seems right or fitting:

intereā, sī vidētur, concēdite istūc (Plautus)

• Meanwhile, if it seems right (to you), step aside over there

Hāc rē mihi placet, sī tibi vidētur, tē ad eum scrībere (Cicero)

• Under the circumstances I see no objection [literally: it is pleasing to me], if you think fit, to your writing to him …

Sum profectō et hīc et illīc. hoc cuivīs mīrārī licet, / neque tibi istuc mīrum magis vidētur quam mihi (Plautus)

• I am indeed both here and there. This may surprise anyone, nor does that seem any more surprising to you than to me.

Tū, sī tibi placuerit liber, cūrābis, ut et Athēnīs sit et in cēterīs oppidīs Graeciae ; vidētur enim posse aliquid nostrīs rēbus lūcis adferre (Cicero)

• If you like the book, you will see to that it is at Athens and in other Greek towns have it in stock; for I think it can add some lustre to my achievements.

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [8] introducing clauses with ut + subjunctive; cōnstat + accusative-infinitive

[1] A number of impersonal verbs introduce a clause that expresses the actual or possible result. For most of these verbs, the translations are very similar and may vary in context.

accidit: it happens; it occurs

contingit: it happens; it comes to pass

efficitur: it is brought about; it results

ēvenit: it happens; it turns out

fierī potest: it is possible

fit: it happens; it comes about; the result is

sequitur: it follows; the result is

relinquitur: it remains; it is left (to conclude)

The result clause is constructed with ut + subjunctive:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/02/220526-level-3-subjunctive-40-dependent.html

Eādem nocte accidit ut esset lūna plēna (Caesar)

• On that same night it happened that the moon was full.

Ita enim contingit ut aestāte pariat (Varro)

• For thus it happens that she gives birth in the summer.

Ex quō efficitur, ut, quod sit honestum, id sit solum bonum (Cicero)

• From which it is brought about that what is honorable is the only good.

Mī ēvēnit, ut ovāns praeda onustus incēderem (Plautus)

• It happened to me that I was marching along in jubilation, laden with booty.

Neque fierī potest ut doleat is, quī audit, ut ōderit, ut invideat, ut pertimēscat aliquid, ut ad flētum misericordiamque dēdūcātur (Cicero)

Note Cicero’s repetitive use of ut which, in translation, would sound clumsy:

• Nor is it possible that the listener [literally: he who listens] should feel pain, (that he should) hate, or envy, or fear anything, or be moved to tears and pity.

Fit ut pretiō novus vincat (Cicero)

• The result is that, through bribery, a new man is victorious.

Relinquitur ut, sī vincimur in Hispāniā, quiēscāmus (Cicero)

• It remains that, if we are defeated in Spain, we should be at rest (i.e. cease).

Sequitur ut dē frūmentō ēmptō vōs, iūdicēs, doceam (Cicero)

• It follows that I should inform you, judges, about the grain that was purchased.

[2] cōnstat: it is agreed; it is certain

In translation this impersonal verb introduces a clause i.e. “It is agreed that…”.

Unlike accidit ut, evenit ut, and the other expressions in [1] above which use ut + subjunctive, cōnstat works differently since it uses an accusative-infinitive construction in the same way as other indirect statements.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/indirect%20statement

(1) Pompēium [accusative] nōbīs amīcissimum cōnstat (2) esse [infinitive] (Cicero)

• It is certain ¦ [that] (1) Pompey (2) is very friendly towards us [ = me].

Cōnstat enim (1) aditūs [accusative] īnsulae (2) esse [infinitive] mūrātōs (Cicero)

• For it is proved ¦ [that] (1) the approaches to the island (2) are surrounded by walls.

Rhodōque Alexandrēam (1) C. Cassium [accusative] (2) prōfectum esse [infinitive] cōnstat (Cicero)

• It is certain ¦ [that] (1) C. Cassius (2) has left Rhodes for Alexandria.

(2) Horātiōs Cūriātiōsque [accusative]  (1) fuisse [infinitive] satis cōnstat (Livy)

• It is well enough agreed ¦ [that] (1) it was (2) the Horatii and Curiatii.

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [9] impersonal passive constructions

Diū pugnātum est. │ The battle went on for a long time.

[i] A transitive verb can be followed by a direct object, for example:

Rēx epistulam scrībit │ The king writes / is writing a letter.

Imperātor epistulam legēbat │ The commander was reading a letter.

Magister epistulam mīsit / mīserat │ The teacher (has) sent / had sent a letter.

Fēmina epistulam accipiet │ The lady will receive a letter.

[ii] Those transitive verbs can be changed into passive forms, epistula becoming the subject of the sentence:

Epistula (ā rēge) scrībitur │ A letter is (being) written (by the king).

Epistula (ab imperātōre) legēbatur│ The letter was being read (by the commander).

Epistula (ā magistrō) missa est / erat│ The letter was (has been) / had been sent by the teacher.

Epistula (ā fēminā) accipiētur │ A letter will be received by the lady.

[iii] Intransitive verbs cannot be followed by a direct object, for example:

currō, -ere: run

dormiō, -īre: sleep

eō, īre: go

pugnō, -āre: fight

veniō, -īre: come

[iv] Intransitive verbs cannot have passive forms with a subject e.g. *he has been slept*, *they were being run*. However, passive forms of intransitive verbs without a subject are used to convey impersonal ideas; in English, that may be expressed by, for example:

“There was shouting going on outside / people were shouting” i.e. the focus is on an action rather than anybody specific performing it.

Diū pugnātum est.

Literally: It was fought for a long time

• There was fighting / people fought for a long time, or (an impersonal) ‘they’ fought for a long time

A noun related to the verb may also work:

• There was a battle for a long time / the battle went on for a long time.

Translations can vary but, in the examples below from the authors, you can see that the impersonal nature of the verb is retained:

Pugnātum est ab utrīsque ācriter (Caesar)

• There was fierce fighting on both sides [ literally: ‘it’ was fought bitterly …]

Ea mē spectātum tulerat per Dionȳsia. postquam illō ventum est, iam, ut mē collocāverat, exorītur ventus turbō (Plautus)

• She had taken me to see (the show) at the Dyonisiac festival. After we’d arrived there, just as she had settled me, a storm wind arose.

Ergō ex omnibus locīs urbis in forum curritur (Livy)

• Therefore, from all parts of the city people are running into the forum.

Macte novā virtūte, puer: Sīc ītur ad astra (Vergil)

• Be blessed in your new courage, boy; this is the way to the stars / one goes to … [literally: In this way it is being gone …]

Ad arma conclāmātum est (Livy)

• The cry ‘to arms!’ was raised.

Et Rōmam inde frequenter migrātum est, ā parentibus maximē ac propinquīs raptārum (Livy)

• And from there, there was frequent migration to Rome, especially by the parents and relatives of those / the women who had been abducted.

Magnīs opibus dormītur in urbe (Juvenal)

• Only with great wealth is it possible to sleep / do people sleep in the city.

However, Martial’s dormouse doesn’t quite obey the ‘rule’:

(1) Tōta mihi (2) dormītur (1) hiems et pinguior illō tempore sum, quō mē nihil nisi somnus alit.

• Literally:  (1) the whole winter for me (2) is slept [ = I sleep the whole winter] and I am fatter during that time (season), when nothing but sleep feeds me.

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [10] with gerundives

(1) We’ll begin with a quick review of the gerundive:

02.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [1]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/020625-level-3-gerundive-1.html

The basic meaning of the gerundive is to express that something needs to be done [X needs to be Yed] and may be translated in several ways:

Hoc faciendum est. │ This must be / has to be / needs to be / is to be done.

Hoc faciendum erat. │ This had to be / needed to be done.

Hoc faciendum erit. │ This will have to be done.

Hic liber legendus est.

Literally: This book is to be / ought to be / should be / worthy of being / read 

This book is worth reading.

Carthāgō dēlenda est.

Carthage must / should be destroyed.

Mīles laudandus erat.

The soldier was to be praised [= the soldier was praiseworthy].

If the action that needs to be done includes who needs to do it i.e. the agent, then the dative is used to express it. The gerundive conveys a sense of obligation, and it is given that grammatical term: the gerundive of obligation.

Carthāgō nōbīs dēlenda est. │ Carthage is to be destroyed by us i.e. even though the translation is ‘by us’ (which would suggest an ablative), it is the dative that expresses the idea in this construction.

It would be perfectly possible to rework the sentence from a passive to an active meaning:

Carthāgō nōbīs dēlenda est. │ Carthage is to be destroyed by us > We must destroy Carthage.

English can convey a similar idea:

Hic liber tibi legendus est │ literally: this book is to be read by you >  this book is for you to read > you need to read this book.

(2) However, the neuter singular of the gerundive + esse can express an impersonal idea: there is no noun naming what must be done; the gerundive itself functions as the grammatical subject.

Mihi currendum est │ I need to run; the gerundive here indicates the agent must perform that action.

Sometimes, no agent is indicated i.e. there is simply a neuter gerundive with esse; context will determine how that is best translated, for example:

Pugnandum est │ (I, you, we etc.) need to fight i.e. there is need for fighting; even though no agent is indicated, it is usually best to include a subject.

Examples; note that translations will not necessarily convey the original impersonal idea:

Quid igitur nōbīs faciendum est?  (Cicero)

What then must be done ¦ by us? / What then are we to do?

In the examples that follow note that:

[i] the impersonal construction may not be rendered in English

[ii] the person to whom the impersonal construction refers may not be specifically stated but understood from context

[iii]  a literal translation can frequently sound clumsy

(1) Nam id maximē cavendum est (Cato)

• For this is especially to be avoided.

(2) Quotiēns dīcendum est tibi? (Plautus)

• How many times do you need to be told [literally: does it need to be said to you?]

(3) Ab domō abeundum est mihi (Plautus)

• I have to leave the house.

(4) Clam illūc redeundum est mihi (Plautus)

• I must return there secretly.

(5) Nōn pol mīrandum est (Plautus)

• By Pollux, it’s no wonder [literally: it is not to be wondered at]

(6) Ita nōn verbōrum tantum grātiā legendum vel audiendum est (Quintilian)

Literally: Thus it not must be read or heard merely for the sake of words.

• Then one / you should not read or listen merely for the sake of words.

(7) Poscit, dandum est; vocat, veniendum est; ēicit, abeundum; minātur, extimēscendum (Cicero)

Note in the example that est is not used with all the gerundives; the sense of obligation is already clear from the first two; Cicero then quickens the pace of the Latin statement by using the gerundive alone:

• He demands — it must be given; he calls — one must come; he drives out — one must go away; he threatens — one must be afraid.

In these last three examples, note the appropriate though highly idiomatic rendering of the construction in translation:

(8)

Haud somnīculōsē hoc agendum est (Plautus)

• We can't go to sleep doing it [literally: This is not to be done sleepily].

(9) Male cubandum est (Plautus)

• I’m in for a bad night [literally: It is to be slept badly].

(10) Inambulandum est (Plautus)

• Now for some wandering around / It’s time to wander around.