02.01.26: Level 2; Vincent (Latin Reader); XXXVII; a storm [ii] Roman fieldworks

Caesar ad nāvēs vēnit, atque, ubi subdūxit, cum castrīs mūnītiōne coniūnxit.

Although Caesar doesn’t give detailed specifications in Dē Bellō Gallicō, Roman military engineering norms allow us to infer it likely included:

a ditch (fossa) dug between the ships and the camp perimeter

an earthen rampart (agger) reinforced with stakes or palisades (vallum)

possibly towers for watch and defense

This connected structure effectively enclosed the ships within the camp’s defensive line, turning both into a single defensible stronghold.

Image #1: Cross-section of the Roman fieldworks at the siege of Alesia (52BCE)

(1) – (4) and (7): main defensive line, a palisade, a wall of wooden stakes, used as a barrier constructed along an earthwork, together with a tower

lorica, -ae [1/f] [i] (soldier’s armour) coat of mail; cuirass [ii] any form of defence e.g. parapet; breastwork i.e. a military fortification consisting of a low wall, often with wooden or wicker defenses

crātis, -is [3/f]: wickerwork

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=lorica-cn

vallum, -ī [2/n]: wall; rampart; entrenchment

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=vallum-cn

Modern English: wall < OE: weall (wall; earthwork; rampart; dam) < La: vallum; Modern German: Wall (rampart; parapet; embankmen)

agger, -is [3/m]: earthwork, especially defensive ramparts, dykes, dams, causeways, and piers

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=agger-cn

pinnae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: battlements i.e the raised parts behind which defenders could shelter

turris, -is [3/f] (acc. -em or -im): tower, especially military either for defence or mobile (turrēs ambulātōriae) for siege purposes

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=turris-cn

Ēruptiōnibus [...] aggerī ignem īnferēbant (Caesar) │ By sorties they set fire to the ramparts

turrēs contabulantur, pinnae lōrīcaeque ex crātibus attexuntur (Caesar) │ towers are constructed, the pinnacles and protective walls are constructed out of wicker

et lōrīcam vallumque per fīnīs suōs Trevīrī strūxēre (Tacitus) │ and the Treveri had constructed a breastwork and rampart across their territory

et dūxit illum in Hierusalem et statuit eum suprā pinnam templī (Vulgate) │ He led him to Jerusalem, and set him on the pinnacle of the temple

Image#2: Mediaeval English siege tower

trenches and obstacles / anti-cavalry devices

the image details a series of ditches (6, 8), forked stakes and spikes (5, 9, 11) and hidden pits (10) designed to impede enemy advances

(5) cervus, -ī [2/m]: [i] deer; stag [ii] (from resemblance to the horns of a stag) cervī: forked stakes

aggerem ac vāllum duodecim pedum exstrūxit. Huic lōrīcam pinnāsque adiēcit grandibus cervīs ēminentibus ad commissūrās pluteōrum atque aggeris, quī ascēnsum hostium tardārent, et turrēs tōtō opere circumdedit, quae pedēs LXXX inter sē distārent (Caesar) │ he raised a rampart and wall twelve feet high; to this he added a parapet and battlements, with large stakes (cut like stags' horns), projecting at the joints of the screens and the rampart, which would hinder the enemy’s ascent, and he surrounded the entire work with turrets, which were eighty feet distant from one another.

opus, operis [3/n]: [i] (in general) work; labour, [ii] (here) a military work, either a defensive work, fortification, or a work of besiegers, a siege-engine, machine, etc.

pluteus, -ī [2/m]: [i] a mobile, protective screen used in siege warfare to shield soldiers as they approached enemy fortifications [ii] (here: Caesar is referring to means of defence) a permanent breastwork, a parapet

Image #3: pluteus (woodcut from Dē rē mīlitārī; Paris, 1532)

(6), (8) fossa, -ae [1/]: ditch; trench; moat

fossam pedum vīgintī dīrēctīs lateribus dūxit (Caesar) │ he dug a trench twenty feet deep, with perpendicular sides

Image #4: defensive ditch at the Antonine Wall, Scotland

(9) cippus, -ī [2/m]: sharpened stake

Quīnī erant ordines coniunctī inter sē atque implicātī; quō quī intrāverant, sē ipsī acūtissimīs vallīs induebant. Hōs cippōs appellābant (Caesar) │ There were five rows (of stakes), joined and interwoven with each other; whoever entered into them impaled themselves on the very sharp stakes. These they called 'cippi'.

(10) līlium, -ī [2/n]: a form of defence, consisting of several rows of pits, in which stakes were planted, rising only four inches above the surface of the ground

reliqua pars scrobis ad occultandās īnsidiās vīminibus ac virgultīs integēbātur. Huius generis octōnī ōrdinēs ductī ternōs inter sē pedēs distābant. Id ex similitūdine flōris līlium appellābant (Caesar)

"The rest of the ditch, for the purpose of hiding traps, was covered over with osiers and brushwood. Eight rows of this kind were constructed, three feet apart from each other. They called it a 'lily' from its resemblance to the flower."

īnsidia, -ae [1/f], but usu. pl. īnsidiae, -ārum: ambush; traps

scrobis, -is [3/m]: ditch; trench

virgultum, -ī [2/n]: bushes; burshwood; shrubbery

Image #5: vīmen, vīminis [3/n]: [i] twig; shoot; [ii] wickerwork; osier

Image #6: the līlia at Rough Castle, near Falkirk, Scotland

“These pits formed part of the forward (northern) defences of the Roman fort at Rough Castle, on the Antonine Wall. They were originally about 3 feet deep and probably held upright sharpened stakes; these pits were then concealed with brushwood. The defences here consisted of about ten rows of twenty pits each. These pits were opened up by excavation in 1903, and have been kept open since then.”

https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/925844

(11) stimulus, -ī [2/m]: a sharp, barbed hook concealed beneath the surface of the ground, to repel hostile troops

Ante haec tāleae pedem longae ferreīs hāmīs īnfīxīs tōtae in terram īnfodiēbantur mediocribusque intermissīs spatiīs omnibus locīs disserēbantur; quōs stimulōs nōminābant (Caesar) │ Stakes a foot long, with iron hooks attached to them, were entirely sunk in the ground before these (defences), and were planted in every place at small intervals; these they called spurs (some translations retain the Latin stimuli)

hāmus, -ī [2/m]: hook; fishhook

tālea, -ae [1/f] (wooden) stake

Image #7: series of wooden defensive spikes strategically placed in ditches encircling the fort (1st century CE Roman fort in Bad Ems, Germany)

Image #8: Interesting comparison: the same image #1 alongside the fortifications of the Berlin Wall in the 1980s, the former designed to keep people out, the latter to keep them in (although I do have a little bit of pride since, having been through Checkpoint Charlie and Friedrichstrasse many times in the early 1980s, I was one of the thousands who took a pick axe to smash it down in 1989)

02.01.26: Level 2; Vincent (Latin Reader); XXXVII; a storm [i]

Dum exercitus Rōmānus pugnat, nūntiī ā Quīntō Atriō ad Caesarem vēnērunt: noctū tempestās maxima nāvēs multās adflīctāverat. Caesar ad nāvēs vēnit, atque, ubi subdūxit*, cum castrīs mūnītiōne coniūnxit. Inde fabrōs ex legiōnibus dēlēgit et aliōs ex continentī arcessit. Rōmānī nāvēs decem diēbus reparāvērunt. Interim cōpiae maiōrēs Britannōrum convēnerant atque Cassivelaunus, dux hostium, omnēs rēs ad bellum parābat. Fluvius Tamesis agrōs Cassivelaunī ā cīvitātibus maritimīs dīvīsit.

*subdūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus [3]: (here) draw / haul up (a ship) onto the land

[A] Comprehension

[1] Which of the following first and second parts of the statement are correct? (2)

[i]

[a] Although the Roman army was fighting …

[b] Since the Roman army was fighting …

[c] While the Roman army was fighting …

[ii]

[a] … Caesar sent messengers to Quintus Atrius.

[b] … Quintus Atrius sent messengers to Caesar.

[c] … Quintus Atrius came to Caesar with messengers.

[2] What had happened at night?

[3] Translate: Caesar ad nāvēs vēnit, atque, ubi subdūxit, cum castrīs mūnītiōne coniūnxit. (4)

[4] [a] Who repaired the ships, and [b] how many days did the repairs take? (4)

[5] What had the Britons done while the repairs were being carried out? (2)

[6] [a] Who was Cassivelaunus, and [b] what was he doing? (2)

[7] What effect did the River Thames have on Cassivelaunus? 

[B] Grammar review

[1] What are the tenses of the following verbs?

[a] pugnat; [b] vēnērunt; [c] adflīctāverat (3)

[2] Give the first person singular present tense of:

 [a] coniunxit; [b] convēnerant; [c] dīvīsit (3)

[3] Give the nominative singular of the following nouns:

[a] fabrōs; [b] continentī; [c] munitiōne; [d] hostium; [e] agrōs (5)

[4] [i] Identify the case of the noun in bold, and [ii] explain why that case is being used: decem diēbus (2)

[5] Find from the text an example of [a] a comparative adjective, and [b] a superlative adjective (2)

____________________

[A] Comprehension

[1] [c] While the Roman army was fighting, [b] Quintus Atrius sent messengers to Caesar [nūntiī ā Quīntō Atriō ad Caesarem vēnērunt │ messengers came to Caesar from Quintus Atrius]

[2] (1) A very large storm (2) had damaged many ships

[3] (1) Caesar came to the ships, and (2) when he had drawn them up (on land), (3) he connected them with the camp (4) by means of a fortification."

[4] [a] (1) workers / craftsmen (2) from the legions and (3) the mainland / continent [b] ten

[5] (1) larger (numbers of ) troops (2) had gathered together

[6] [a] enemy commander [b] preparing everything for war

[7] (1) divided the territories of Cassivelaunus (2) from the maritime tribes

[B] Grammar review

[1] [a] present; [b] perfect; [c] pluperfect

[2] [a] coniungō; [b] conveniō [c] dīvidō

[3] [a] faber; [b] continēns; [c] munitiō; [d] hostis; [e] ager

[4] [i] ablative; [ii] time within which [decem diebus: within ten days]

[5] [a] maiōrēs; [b] maxima

01.01.26: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [22][iii] comprehension (2)

[3] Nunc equī nigrī sē nōn celeriter movent. Diēs longus fuit sed grātus. Servus ā Carolō ad Americam invītātur. Facile nōn erit ad Americam īre, nam servus magnam pecūniam nōn habet.

In which order are the following referred to?

an invitation _____

lack of money _____

length of the day _____

difficulty of going to America _____

speed of the horses _____

[4] Nocte Carolus epistulam ad Cassium scrībit. Haec dīcit: “Mox Italiam vīsitābimus. Italia erit mihi omnium terrārum grātissima. Cēterās terrās laudō, sed Italiam amō. Amīcus meus novus est puer Germānus quem laudō. Nunc est tempus ad Italiam īre parāre. Valē, Cassī.”

The following statements are false; correct them:

[i] Cassius writes a letter to Carolus.

[ii] They’ve visited Italy.

[iii] Italy will be quite pleasing.

[iv] Carolus praises some of the other countries.

[v] He’s made friends with a German man.

[vi] They’re on the way to Italy.

____________________

[3]

an invitation (3)

lack of money (5)

length of the day (2)

difficulty of going to America (4)

speed of the horses (1)

Nunc equī nigrī (1) sē nōn celeriter movent. (2) Diēs longus fuit sed grātus. (3) Servus ā Carolō ad Americam invītātur. (4) Facile nōn erit ad Americam īre, nam servus (5) magnam pecūniam nōn habet.

[4]

[i] (1) Carolus writes a letter (2) to Cassius│ (1) Carolus epistulam (2) ad Cassium scrībit

[ii] soon will visit Italy │ Mox Italiam vīsitābimus

[iii] the most pleasing of all the countries│ omnium terrārum grātissima

[iv] the rest of the countries │ Cēterās terrās laudō

[v] a German boy │ puer Germānus

[vi] getting ready / preparing to go to Italy │ ad Italiam īre parāre

01.01.26: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [22][ii] comprehension (1)

Carolus et Maria XXII

[1] Nunc post multōs diēs Carolus ūnum amīcum novum in Germāniā habet. Amīcus est servus quī tēctum medicī cūrat. Servus linguam Carolī intellegit nam ōlim in Americā habitāvit. Hodiē nōn labōrat, sed cum Carolō per silvam errat. Puerī duōs equos nigrōs habent. Eī celeriter ad silvam currunt. Carolus equum suum incitat quod īre celeriter cupit. Via est lāta et facilis et mox puerī in silvā sunt. Nūllae bēstiae perīculōsae hīc errant nam silva nōn est locus perīculōsus. Bēstiae ferae, sed parvae per tōtam silvam errant. Servus nōmina omnium bēstiārum scit. Grātum est Carolō cum amīcō novō per silvam errāre. Ubi rūrī est, laetus est.

[1]

[i] When does Carolus find a new friend? (1)

[ii] Who is the friend? (2)

[iii] What language does he understand and why? (2)

[iv] Why is he not working today? (2)

[v] Translate: Puerī duōs equos nigrōs habent. Eī celeriter ad silvam currunt. Carolus equum suum incitat quod īre celeriter cupit. (7)

[vi] How is the road described? (2)

[vii] What information is given about the forest? (4)

[viii] What does Carolus’ friend know? (1)

[ix] How does Carolus feel about wandering in the forest? (1)

[x] When is Carolus happy? (1)

[2] Complete the Latin text with the vocabulary listed below. Use the English translation for reference.

(1) The whole day the servant and Carolus (2) stay in the forest. When it’s (3) time (4) to go home, the boys go by (5) another way.  The servant points out the place (6) which (7) once was the home (8) of the barbarians. When (9) the barbarians (10) were sleeping, the old ancient town was (11) taken by storm and (12) destroyed.  Many barbarians were (13) wounded and (14) killed. The rest who were (15) saved, were (16) thrown in chains. Carolus praises (17) these tales and tells the servant (18) other tales (19) about barbarians who once used to live in (20) his country.

(1) __________ diem servus et Carolus in silvā (2) __________. Cum est (3) __________ domum (4) __________, puerī (5) __________ viā eunt. Servus locum (6) __________ (7) __________ erat domus (8) __________ mōnstrat. Ubi (9) __________ (10) __________, oppidum antīquum (11) __________ et (12) __________ est. Multī barbarī (13) __________ et (14) __________ sunt. Cēterī quī (15) __________ sunt in vincula (16) __________ sunt. Carolus (17) __________ fābulās laudat et servō (18) __________ fābulās (19) __________ barbarīs quī ōlim in patriā (20) __________ habitābant nārrat.

aliā; aliās; barbarī; barbarōrum; dē; dēlētum; dormiēbant; expugnātum; hās; iactī; īre; manent; necātī; ōlim; quī; servātī; suā; tempus; tōtum; vulnerātī

____________________

[1]

[i] When does Carolus find a new friend? (1) │ after many days (many days later) / post multōs diēs

[ii] Who is the friend? (2)  │ (1) a servant; (2) takes care of the doctor’s house / (1) servus quī (2) tēctum medicī cūrat

[iii] What language does he understand and why? (2) │ (1) Carolus’ language (English); (2) (once / at one time) lived in America / (1) linguam Carolī intellegit; (2) (ōlim) in Americā habitāvit

[iv] Why is he not working today? (2) │ (1) wandering through the forest (2) with Carolus / (2) cum Carolō (1) per silvam errat

[v] Translate: Puerī duōs equos nigrōs habent. Eī celeriter ad silvam currunt. Carolus equum suum incitat quod īre celeriter cupit. (7) │ (1) The boys have (2) two black horses. (3) They run quickly (4) towards the forest. (5) Carolus spurs on his horse (6) because he wants (7) to go fast.

[vi] How is the road described? (2) │ (1) wide; (2) easy / (1) lāta et (2) facilis

[vii] What information is given about the forest? (3) │(1) no dangerous animals (here); (2) forest not a dangerous place; (3) small wild animals; (4) wander through the whole forest / (1) Nūllae bēstiae perīculōsae hīc errant nam (2) silva nōn est locus perīculōsus. (3) Bēstiae ferae, sed parvae (4) per tōtam silvam errant.

[viii] What does Carolus’ friend know? │ the names of all the beasts / nōmina omnium bēstiārum

[ix] How does Carolus feel about wandering in the forest? (1) │ he likes it (it’s pleasing) / Grātum est Carolō … per silvam errāre

[x] When is Carolus happy? (1) │ (When he’s) in the countryside / Ubi rūrī est

[2]

(1) Tōtum diem servus et Carolus in silvā (2) manent. Cum est (3) tempus domum (4) īre, puerī (5) aliā viā eunt. Servus locum (6) quī (7) ōlim erat domus (8) barbarōrum mōnstrat. Ubi (9) barbarī (10) dormiēbant, oppidum antīquum (11) expugnātum et (12) dēlētum est. Multī barbarī (13) vulnerātī et (14) necātī sunt. Cēterī quī (15) servātī sunt in vincula (16) iactī sunt. Carolus (17) hās fābulās laudat et servō (18) aliās fābulās (19) dē barbarīs quī ōlim in patriā (20) suā habitābant nārrat.

31.12.25: Level 3; indirect statement; the accusative-infinitive [5]; the present active infinitive

At this point, what you know about indirect statement in English, and in many other languages, you need to put aside.

“I’m going home.”

John says that he is going home. │ John said that he was going home.

English can shift the tense of the indirect statement depending on the tense of the verb which introduces it.

John says that he will go home at 5. │ John said that he would go home at 5.

Latin does not operate in that way. Regardless of whether the person said it, or is saying it, or will say it, the question is whether the statement refers to an ongoing situation or a general state of affairs at the point at which that statement is made.

[i] Dīcunt ¦ vōs hostēs vincere. │ They say ¦ that you are conquering the enemy.

[ii] Dīxērunt ¦ vōs hostēs vincere. │ They said ¦ that you were conquering the enemy.

At the point at which the statement is originally made, it is referring to a situation that is ongoing i.e. conquering the enemy.

Latin uses an infinitive and, to be precise, a present active infinitive because it will use other infinitives (which we will look at in later posts) to convey other relations of time.

[i] Crēdit ¦ patrem amāre filiās. │ He believes ¦ that the father loves the daughters.

[ii] Credidit ¦ patrem amāre filiās. │ He believed ¦ that the father loved the daughters.

His original belief was “the father loves the daughters” i.e. an ongoing situation at the time he had that thought. Therefore, Latin uses the present active infinitive. The main verb of the sentence changes tense, but the infinitive of the indirect statement remains the same.

Magister puerōs discere dīcit. │ The teacher says ¦ that the boys are studying.

Magister puerōs discere dīxit. │ The teacher said ¦ that the boys were studying.

Magister puerōs discere dīcet. │ The teacher will say ¦ that the boys are studying.

It doesn’t matter when he says, said or will say it; the present active infinitive shows that the action is ongoing.

Nūntiātum est ¦ adesse Scīpiōnem (Caesar) │ It was reported ¦ that Scipio was nearby.

What was actually reported at the time was “Scipio is nearby” and so Latin uses the present infinitive.

Further examples:

Frāter scit ¦ mē epistulam scrībere. │ My brother knows ¦ that I am writing a letter.

Nautae subitō sēnsērunt ¦ sē in maximō perīculō esse. │ The sailors suddenly sensed ¦ that they were in very great danger.

Nōn crēdēbam ¦ tē tam stultum esse, Sexte. │ I didn’t believe ¦ that you were so stupid, Sextus.

Brevī tempore cognōscēs ¦ uxōrem istum dē pecūniā fallere. │ In a short time you’ll learn ¦ that that wife of yours is deceiving you about the money.

Adsimulābō ¦ mē esse ēbrium (Plautus) │ I’ll pretend ¦ that I’m drunk.

Uxor eius dīxit ¦ sē in balneīs virīlibus lavārī velle (Gellius) │ His wife said ¦ that she wanted to bathe in the men’s baths.

31.12.25: Level 3; language review; Labours of Hercules [2] The Lernean Hydra

Ōlim in palūde versābātur hȳdra. Haec novem capita habēbat. Capita vērō octo abscīdit Herculēs, nōnum autem vulnerāre nōn poterat; immortāle enim erat. Abscissō quōque capite, bīna statim ēnāscēbantur. Hīs tandem igne cōnsūmptīs, caput immortāle sub saxō ingentī condidit Herculēs. Bēluā ita dēvictā, sagittās venēnātō sanguine tīnxit.

(1) Translate the phrases from the text, and (2) briefly explain the grammatical constructions being used:

[i] Abscissō quōque capite

[ii] Hīs tandem igne cōnsūmptīs

[iii] sub saxō ingentī

[iv] sagittās venēnātō sanguine tīnxit

____________________

[i] Abscissō quōque capite │ With each head having been cut off

quōque: ablative neuter singular of quisque (each) i.e. not ‘quoque’ (also)

The phrase could also be translated with ‘although’:

Abscissō quōque capite, bīna statim ēnāscēbantur. │ Although / even though each head was cut off, two (others) immediately grew (in its place)

[ii] Hīs tandem igne cōnsūmptīs │ With these having been finally consumed by fire

Ablative absolute; igne: ablative of means / instrument

[iii] sub saxō ingentī │ under a huge stone; ingentī: ablative singular of ingēns, -entis

[iv] sagittās venēnātō sanguine tīnxit │ He dipped / stained (his) arrows in / with the poisoned blood

sanguis, sanguinis [3/m]: blood

tingō, -ere, tinxī, tinctus (3): moisten; smear; dip; impregnate (with);

venēnātus, -a, -um: perfect passive participle < venēnō, -āre, -āvī [1]: poison

Once there lived in a swamp a water snake. It had nine heads. Hercules, indeed, cut off eight heads, but he was unable to wound the ninth, for it was immortal. Each head having been cut off, two (others) at once grew up (in its stead). These at length having been destroyed by fire, Hercules buried the immortal head under a huge stone. The beast having been thus utterly conquered, he dipped his arrows in its poisoned blood.

Seven-headed (septiceps) hydra; from Historia Naturalis; Jan Jonston (1665)

30.12.25: In the kitchen with Apicius

“Oven ready” Latin

While the verbs in the Apicius cookbook address you directly telling you what you do and will do, the first principal part of any Latin verb already gives you the 1^st person singular present tense i.e. you already have a list of verbs to describe your own food preparation. The notes focus on the verbs although some other words are discussed that are uncommon and / or have not been discussed in earlier posts.

Apicius: Book 7; VII

[1] Ventrem porcīnum bene exināniēs, acētō et sale, posteā aquā lavās, │[1] You will thoroughly clean out the pork belly, with vinegar and salt, then you wash it with water

exināniō, -īre [4]: clean out

lavō, -āre [1]: wash

acētum, -ī [2/n]: vinegar

sāl, -is [3 m/m]: salt

porcīnus, -a, -um: of a pig; porcīna, -ae [1/f]: pork meat

[2] et sīc hanc impēnsam implēs: pulpam porcīnam tūnsam trītam, ita ut ¦ enervāta ¦ commisceās cerebella ¦ tria et ōva crūda, │ [2] and you will fill it with the following stuffing: pork meat pounded (in a mortar) and ground / minced, in such a way that you mix in ¦ three brains with the nerves removed ¦ and raw eggs,

commisceō, -ēre [2]: mix together; commiscē mulsum! (Plautus) │ Mix the honeyed wine!

impleō, -ēre [2]: fill

terō, -ere, trīvī, trītus [3]: rub; crush; (here) grind

tundō, -ere, tutudī, tūnsus [3]: beat; pound; pulp (e.g. using a mortar)

pulpa, -ae [1/f]: soft flesh (of an animal)

pulpam porcīnam (1) tūnsam (2) trītam

impēnsa, -ae [1/f] 2 distinct meanings: [i] expense, cost, outlay; [ii] (here) stuffing, prepared mixture (used to fill meats, pastries, etc.)

[3] cui nucleōs īnfundis et piper integrum mittis et hōc iūre temperās │ [3] into which you mix (small) nuts, put / add whole peppercorns, and season it with this sauce.

īnfundō, -ere [3]: pour into; mix

nucleus, -ī [2/m]: small nut

piper, -is [3/m]: pepper corn

compare: piper integrum │ whole peppercorn; piper trītum │ crushed peppercorn

temperō, -āre [1]: (here) season; ‘add … to taste’

[4] Terēs piper, ligusticum, silphium, anesum, gingiber, rūtae modicum, liquāmen optimum et oleī modicum. │ [4] You will crush pepper, lovage, silphium, anise, ginger, a little rue, the best fish sauce and a little (olive) oil.

oleī [genitive] modicum: partitive genitive i.e. literally: a small amount of oil; rūtae modicum: a small amount of / a little rue

anesum, -ī, or anīsum, -ī [2/n]: anise, a spice with a liquorice scent

ligusticum, -ī [2/n]: lovage, a type of herb with a smell and flavour similar to celery

rūta, -ae [1/f]: rue, a bitter herb

zingiber, -is [3/m], or zingiberi [n / indeclinable]: ginger; Apicius refers to it as gingiber

The recipe was not for those on a budget. Now thought to be exinct, silphium, -ī [2/n] < Greek: σίλφιον [sílphion] was a plant-based spice or medicinal herb highly prized in the ancient Mediterranean world. It was used as a medicine, perfume and aphrodisiac, and also in cooking, especially in the Apicius recipes. Primarily from Cyrene (in modern Libya), it was so valuable that it appeared on their coins. Also: lāserpīcium (lāsarpīcium), -ī [2/n], the resin obtained from the plant.

https://www.zmescience.com/feature-post/history-and-humanities/history/silphium-first-birth-control/

[5] Replēs aquāliculum sīc ut laxāmentum habeat, nē dissiliat in coctūrā. │ [5] You fill the stomach (with it) in such a way that it has some slack (i.e. not too much) so that it does not burst during cooking.

dissiliō, -īre [4]: burst apart

repleō, -ēre [2]: fill up again

aquāliculus, -ī [2/m] (here) stomach

coctūra, -ae [1/f]: cooking; roasting; heating

[6] Surculās ambās et in ollam bullientem summittis. Levās et pungis acū, nē crepet. │ [6] You sew up both (ends) and lower it into a boiling pot. You lift it and prick it with a needle, so that it doesn’t burst.

bulliō, -īre [4]: bubble; boil > ōlla bulliēns: a boiling pot; a pot of boiling water

crepō, -āre [1]: break; (here) burst

pungō, -ere [3]: prick; burst; puncture

surculō, -āre [1]: bind together (with twigs)

summittō, -ere [3]: lower

acus, -ūs [4/f]: needle; pin

[7] Cum ad dīmidiās coctum fuerit, levās et ad fūmum suspendis ut colōrētur. │ [7] When it has been half cooked / done, you take it / lift it out and hang it in the smoke so that it may take on colour.

suspendō, -ere [3]: hang

fūmus, -ī [2/m]: smoke

[8] Et dēnuō eum perēlixābis, ut coquī possit. │ [8] And you will boil it thoroughly again, so that it can be cooked.

per- as a prefix is used to [i] convey the idea of ‘very’: permagnus (very great), permultī (very many); [ii] express intensity or thoroughness e.g. performing the action all the way through: pergaudeō, -ēre [2]: greatly rejoice; pernoctō, -āre [1]: spend the night (i.e. right through the night).

It is used with many adjectives and verbs, but, with this verb ēlixō, -āre [1]: boil, appears only to be attested in Apicius, although the meaning is clear: perēlixō i.e. boil thoroughly / all the way through

[9] Deinde liquāmine, merō, oleō modicō <temperābis> et cultellō aperiēs et cum liquāmine et

ligusticō adpōnis. │ [9] After that, you will season it with garum, pure wine, and a little oil; you will open it with a little knife and you serve it with garum and lovage.

adpōnō (appōnō), -ere [3]: place near; set (e.g. on a table); (here): serve up

merus, -a, -um: pure; undiluted; merum, -ī [2/n]: pure wine

adpōnō (appōnō), -ere [3]: place near; set (e.g. on a table); (here): serve up

merus, -a, -um: pure; undiluted; merum, -ī [2/n]: pure wine

30.12.25: Comenius (1658) LV: cookery (5) from the authors

[i] Cato on what’s needed for a vineyard:

quāla satōria vel alveōs XL │ 40 planting-baskets or troughs

rutābulum I │ 1 poker

foculōs II │ 2 braziers

crātīculās duās │ 2 grid-irons

vāsa laventur, corbulae sarciantur │ let vats be cleaned, baskets mended

[ii] Celsus:

Sī in cute vitium est, frīgida quoque quam calida aqua melius ūtētur. Ubi ad cibum ventum est, darī dēbet is valēns, frīgidus, siccus, simplex, quī quam minimē corrumpī possit, pānis tostus, carō assa, …

When there is anything wrong with the skin, it is better to use cold rather than hot water. Coming to the food, this should be nutritious, cold, dry, plain, with the least possible tendency to decomposition, bread toasted, meat roasted, …

[iii] Plautus:

ecferte hūc scōpās … ut operam omnem arāneōrum perdam │ Bring the brooms here … so that I may destroy all the work of the spiders …

geritōte amīcīs vostrīs aurum corbibus │ then carry to your friends the gold in baskets

cultrum, secūrim, pistillum, mortārium, quae ūtenda vāsa semper vīcīnī rogant …│  The knife, the hatchet, the pestle and mortar, utensils that neighbours are always asking the loan of …

secūris, -is [3/f] (acc. -im or -em): axe; hatchet

[iv] Aliter cucumerēs rāsōs: elixābis cum cerebellīs ēlixīs, terēs cumīnum et apiī sēmen, melle modicō, liquāmine et oleō temperābis (Apicius) │ Another way (to prepare) grated cucumbers: you will boil (them) with boiled brains, grind cumin and celery seed, and mix [everything] with a little honey, fish sauce, and olive oil

apium, -ī [2/n]: celery; parsley

cerebrum, -ī [2/n]: brain; cerebellum, -ī [2/n] (diminutive): little brain

cucumis, cucumeris [3/m]: cucumber

liquāmen, liquāminis [3/n]: fish oil / sauce

mel, mellis [3/n]: honey

oleum, -ī [2/n]: olive oil

sēmen, sēminis [3/n]: seed

[iv] nē quod vestīgium sceleris superesset, tōtum ānserem lacerātum verubus cōnfīxit (Petronius) │ So that no trace of the crime might remain, she impaled the entire mangled goose with spits

ānser, -is [3/m]: goose

[v]

Ipsum autem arietem secābis in frūsta (Vulgate) │ And you shall cut the ram into pieces

secō, -āre [1]: cut

frūstum, -ī [2/n]: piece; bit

Vīscera pars in frūsta secant, verubusque trementia fīgunt (Virgil) │ Some cut the entrails into pieces, and stick the trembling (bits) on spits

29.12.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [22][i] text, vocabulary, notes; review: perfect passive

Carolus et Maria XXII

Nunc post multōs diēs Carolus ūnum amīcum novum in Germāniā habet. Amīcus est servus quī tēctum medicī cūrat. Servus linguam Carolī intellegit nam ōlim in Americā habitāvit. Hodiē nōn labōrat, sed cum Carolō per silvam errat. Puerī duōs equos nigrōs habent. Eī celeriter ad silvam currunt. Carolus equum suum incitat quod īre celeriter cupit. Via est lāta et facilis et mox puerī in silvā sunt. Nūllae bēstiae perīculōsae hīc errant nam silva nōn est locus perīculōsus. Bēstiae ferae, sed parvae per tōtam silvam errant. Servus nōmina omnium bēstiārum scit. Grātum est Carolō cum amīcō novō per silvam errāre. Ubi rūrī est, laetus est.

Tōtum diem servus et Carolus in silvā manent. Cum est tempus domum īre, puerī aliā viā eunt. Servus locum quī ōlim erat domus barbarōrum mōnstrat. Ubi barbarī dormiēbant, oppidum antīquum expugnātum et dēlētum est. Multī barbarī vulnerātī et necātī sunt. Cēterī quī servātī sunt in vincula iactī sunt. Carolus hās fābulās laudat et servō aliās fābulās dē barbarīs quī ōlim in patriā suā habitābant nārrat.

Nunc equī nigrī sē nōn celeriter movent. Diēs longus fuit sed grātus. Servus ā Carolō ad Americam invītātur. Facile nōn erit ad Americam īre, nam servus magnam pecūniam nōn habet.

Nocte Carolus epistulam ad Cassium scrībit. Haec dīcit: “Mox Italiam vīsitābimus. Italia erit mihi omnium terrārum grātissima. Cēterās terrās laudō, sed Italiam amō. Amīcus meus novus est puer Germānus quem laudō. Nunc est tempus ad Italiam īre parāre. Valē, Cassī.”

bēstia, -ae [1/f]: beast

servus, -ī [2/m]: (here) servant (not *slave*)

tempus, temporis [3/n]: time

ferus, -a, -um: wild

cēterī, -ae, -a: the others; the rest [Engl. etc. = et cetera]

tōtus, -a, -um: the whole; all

facilis, -e: easy

errō, -āre [1]: wander

incitō, -āre [1]: spur on (e.g. a horse) [Engl. deriv. incite]

Notes:

[1] equī … sē nōn celeriter movent │ the horses are not moving quickly; literally: the horses are not moving themselves quickly

[2] Valē, Cassī: Good-bye, Cassius; the vocative case i.e. Cassius is being addressed directly; -ius > -ī

[3] The verbs below from the text are all perfect passive, referring to what was / has been done

Oppidum antīquum expugnātum et dēlētum est │ The ancient town was taken by storm and destroyed.

Multī barbarī vulnerātī et necātī sunt  │ Many barbarians were wounded and killed.

Cēterī quī servātī sunt in vincula iactī sunt │ The others / rest who were saved were thrown into chains.

[i] The perfect passive was first referred to here

21.11.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [16][vi] Grammar Notes (2) Perfect Passive

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/08/211125-level-1-carolus-et-maria-16vi.html

[ii] That post contained several links. The link giving the most important information is:

13.01.25: Level 2; the passive voice [20]: the perfect passive [1]; three-in-one: the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect passive; the fourth principal part / the perfect passive participle

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/130125-level-2-passive-voice-20-perfect.html

[iii] A verb in Latin is listed in, for example, a dictionary or a grammar book based on its principal parts:

Most Latin verbs have four principal parts:

(1) First principal part: dēleō; the first person singular present tense

(2) Second principal part: dēlēre; the present active infinitive

(3) Third principal part: dēlēvī; the first person singular perfect tense; at the link below you saw that the third principal part is used to form the perfect tense:

26.10.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [12][iii] principal parts

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/07/261025-level-1-carolus-et-maria-12iii.html

[iv] And now we have the fourth - and final - principal part:

(4) delētus, -a, -um: the perfect passive participle and, so as not to lose sight of what it means, we’ll translate it not just as ‘destroyed’ because that might lead you to believe it is identical to its English equivalent with more than one function, but as having been destroyed i.e. it is used only in passive constructions and refers to an action that was / has been completed or had been completed or will have been completed.

[v] The perfect passive participle agrees with the subject in gender and number:

mīles (masculine) vulnerātus est │ the soldier was (has been) injured

urbs (feminine) expugnāta est │ the city was (has been) captured / taken by storm

oppidum (neuter) dēletum est │ the town was (has been) destroyed

multī barbarī (masculine plural) vulnerātī sunt │ many barbarians were (have been) injured

multae urbēs (feminine plural) expugnatae sunt │ many cities were (have been) captured / taken by storm

multa oppida (neuter plural) dēleta sunt │ many towns were (have been) destroyed

[vi] Remember that the perfect passive participle is very often used with the verb esse to create passive sentences but Latin uses the present tense of esse + the perfect passive participle to convey ‘was / has been (done)’; in the examples below, there is no need to repeat ‘est’ and ‘sunt’; as in English, the verb esse applies to both perfect passive participles.

Oppidum antīquum (1) expugnātum et (2) dēlētum est │ The ancient town was (1) taken by storm and (2) [was] destroyed.

Multī barbarī (1) vulnerātī et (2) necātī sunt  │ Many barbarians were (1) wounded and (2) [were] killed.

The image shows the principal parts of verbs from this text. Note: in some listings, the 4^th principal part will appear with the ending -um rather than -us; that is referring to a different form of the verb but – at this stage – it makes no difference since it still has the same -us, -a, -um endings.