14.02.26: Level 3; Celestial Sphere: from the authors [2] A sky painted with stars …

Manilius: Astronomica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomica_(Manilius)

Meter: hexameter [ - - / - uu (x6)]

04.09.25: The best place to start Latin poetry is … in a cave! [2]; some basics concerning Classical Latin poetry

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/09/040925-best-place-to-start-latin-poetry_3.html

[1] Hīs inter sōlisque viās Arctōsque latentīs,

[Hīs īn- ¦ tēr sō- ¦ līs-quĕ vĭ- ¦ ās ārc- ¦ tōs-quĕ lă- ¦ tēn-tīs]

Between these and the paths of the Sun and the hidden Bears,

[2] Axem quae mundī strīdentem pondere torquent,

[Āx-ēm ¦ quāe mūn- ¦ dī strī- ¦ dēn-tēm ¦ pōn-dĕ-rĕ ¦ tōr-quē̆nt]

which turn the axis of the world, creaking under its weight,

[3] Orbe peregrīnō caelum dēpingitur astrīs,

[Ōr-bĕ pĕ- ¦ rē-grī- ¦ nō cāe- ¦ lūm dē- ¦ pīn-gĭ-tŭr ¦ ās-trīs]

in a foreign orbit the sky is painted with stars,

[4] Quae notia antīquī dīxērunt sīdera vātēs.

[Quāe nŏ-tĭ-(a) ¦ ān-tī- ¦ quī dī-¦ xē-rūnt ¦ sī-dĕ-ră ¦ vā-tēs]

which the ancient poets called the southern constellations

notius, -a, -um: southern

Arctos, -ī [2/f]: the Great Bear (Ursa Major); (here) in the plural, referring to Ursa Major and Ursa Minor

vātēs, -is [3 m/f]: various meanings including [i] prophet(ess); [ii] soothsayer; [iii] poet(ess)

13.02.26: Level 2; Vincent (Latin Reader); XL / XLI; [1] A Sudden Attack by the British; [2] British Methods of Fighting (i) comprehension

[1] A Sudden Attack by the British

Equitēs Britannōrum et essedāriī cum equitibus Rōmānīs in itinere ācriter proeliō cōnflīxērunt. Rōmānī omnibus in partibus erant superiōrēs atque hostēs in silvās et collēs compulērunt. Dum Rōmānī sunt incautī atque castra mūniunt, subitō hostēs ex omnibus partibus contrā mīlitēs, quī prō castrīs erant in statiōne, impetum fēcērunt. Caesar duās cohortēs et partem legiōnis mīsit. Rōmānī hostēs fugāvērunt atque numerum magnum necāvērunt.

cōnflīgō, cōnflīgere, cōnflīxī,  cōnflīctus [3]: struggle; engage (in battle)

Note the difference between the Latin tense usage and the English translation:

[(i) temporal clause; clause of time] Dum Rōmānī sunt incautī atque castra mūniunt, ¦ [(ii) main clause] subitō hostēs … impetum fēcērunt. │ (i) While the Romans were careless and (were) fortifying the camp, (ii) suddenly the enemy made an attack.

The present tense is used with dum in the temporal clause (i) even though the action described in the main clause (ii) took place in the past; this conveys that both actions were happening at the same time

Dum Rōmānī sunt [present tense ≠ Engl.] incautī atque castra mūniunt [present tense ≠ Engl.], │ Literally: While the Romans are carless and (are) fortifying the camp,  [ = While the Romans were careless and (were) fortifying the camp,]

subitō hostēs … impetum fēcērunt [perfect tense = Engl.] │ suddenly the enemy made an attack

[1] Comprehension

The following statements are untrue; correct them:

[i] the Romans had charioteers

[ii] the Romans fought in higher locations

[iii] the Britons fought in the forests and hills

[iv] the Romans were always careful

[v] the Britons did not attack

[vi] the Roman soldiers were on guard inside the camp

[vii] Caesar sent three legions and part of a cohort

[viii] a large number of Romans were killed

[2] British Methods of Fighting

Hōc in genere pugnae nostrī propter arma gravia nec hostibus īnstāre poterant nec ab signīs discēdere audēbant. Nostrī equitēs magnō cum perīculō pugnābant, quod hostēs cōnsultō saepe cēdēbant atque, ubi nostrōs ā legiōnibus remōverant, ex essedīs dēsiliēbant et pedibus  contendēbant. Hostēs rārī semper pugnābant et statiōnēs intervāllīs magnīs habēbant atque integrī fessīs succēdēbant. Hīs causīs mīlitēs  Rōmānī magnā cum difficultāte contendēbant.

cōnsultō: deliberately

rārus, -a, -um: scattered

succēdō, -ere, successī, successus [3]: relieve

[2] Comprehension

What reason(s) are given for the statements in bold?

[i] nostrī propter arma gravia nec hostibus īnstāre poterant (1)

[ii] Nostrī equitēs magnō cum perīculō pugnābant, quod hostēs cōnsultō saepe cēdēbant atque, ubi nostrōs ā legiōnibus remōverant, ex essedīs dēsiliēbant et pedibus contendēbant (4)

[iii] Hostēs rārī semper pugnābant et statiōnēs intervāllīs magnīs habēbant atque integrī fessīs succēdēbant. Hīs causīs mīlitēs Rōmānī magnā cum difficultāte contendēbant (3)

____________________

[1]

[i] the Britons │ Equitēs Britannōrum et essedāriī

[ii] superior / stronger (than the Britons) │ Rōmānī … erant superiōrēs

[iii] pushed together into the forests and hills │ Rōmānī … hostēs in silvās et collēs compulērunt

[iv] careless ¦ when fortifying the camp │ Dum Rōmānī sunt incautī atque castra mūniunt

[v] made a sudden attack │ subitō hostēs … impetum fēcērunt

[vi] outside the camp / in front of the camp │ prō castrīs erant in statiōne

[vii] Caesar sent two cohorts and part of a legion │ Caesar duās cohortēs et partem legiōnis mīsit

[viii] a large number of the enemy │ Rōmānī hostēs fugāvērunt atque numerum magnum necāvērunt.

[2]

[i] heavy weapons

[ii] (1) enemy often retreated deliberately (2) drew the Romans away from the legions (3) leapt down from chariots (4) fought on foot

[iii] (1) enemy always fought in scattered order; (2) posts at wide intervals; (3) fresh soldiers relieved tired ones

12.02.26: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [24][vii]: object of comparison; relative superlative

[1] object of comparison

Urbs antīqua etiam (1) pulchrior erat (2) quam haec. │ The ancient city was even (1) more beautiful (2) than this one.

When, for example, you say that the temple is older than the museum, the noun (or pronoun) after than is known as the object of comparison. In Latin, the object of comparison can be formed in two ways:

The man is stronger ¦ than the boy.

[i] Vir [nominative] fortior est ¦ quam puer [nominative].

[ii] Vir [nominative] fortior est ¦ puerō [ablative].

They are not always interchangeable, but – at this stage – it is enough to recognise both possibilities.

Links

Object of comparison with:

[i] quam

https://youtu.be/Fm1EIvgFTvI

[ii] the ablative case

https://youtu.be/wTyQM41nfUk

[2] relative superlative

“Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the fairest of them all?”

[1] The superlative can stand alone:

Fortissimus est. │ He is the bravest.

[2] The relative superlative refers to when the superlative is used in relation to something else e.g. the bravest of (all) the soldiers. Latin expresses this idea in two ways:

[i] With the genitive, and usually genitive plural since the superlative tends to be highlighting the best, worst etc. of a group, more than one person or thing:

eloquentissimus ¦ Rōmānōrum │ the most eloquent ¦ of the Romans

doctissimus ¦ magistrōrum │ the most educated ¦ of the teachers

pulcherrima omnium fēminārum │ the most beautiful ¦ of all the women

altissima ¦ arborum │ the tallest ¦ of the trees

[ii] With ē / ex + ablative plural

altissima ex arboribus │ the tallest of the trees

doctissimus ē magistrīs │ the most educated of the teachers

That is similar to English “He’s the best pupil out of that whole class.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/051224-level-2-degrees-of-comparison-17.htm

11.02.26: Level 3; indirect statement; the accusative-infinitive [22]; future passive infinitive: practice

Complete the Latin with the appropriate form of the future passive infinitive listed below.

[i] He said that he would be hindered by you. │ Ille dīxit sē ā tē __________.

[ii] Remember that you've undertaken that … all the money will be returned to me│ Mementō prōmīsisse tē … mihi omne argentum __________ (Plautus)

[iii] After he had heard that a wife would not be given to his son │ Quī postquam audierat nōn __________ fīliō uxōrem suō (Terence)

[iv] So long as he thinks it will be known, he is on his guard │ Dum id __________ crēdit tantisper cavet (Terence)

[v] What did you imagine that … she would be brought home to your chamber? │ Quid? crēdēbās … illam … in cubiculum __________ domum? (Terence)

[vi] [that he hoped] … that truly no harm would come to him [= he would not be harmed] │ [spērāre] ...  ipsī vērō nihil __________ (Caesar)

[vii] He could see that Sopater would be acquitted │ __________ Sōpatrum vidēbat (Cicero)

[viii] They understood that the matter would appear [ = would be seen] (as) … more unfair. │ …  rem … inīquiōrem __________ intellegēbant. (Cicero)

[ix] If, therefore, this money has not been spent as yet, ¦ and if it is evident that it will not be spent, … │ ita sī neque adhūc cōnsūmpta est ista pecūnia ¦ et est perspicuum nōn __________, … (Cicero)

[x] And he adds this assertion, that he will be condemned by the vote … │ Atque hoc addit testimōnī, suā illum sententiā … __________ (Cicero)

absolūtum īrī; condemnātum īrī; cōnsūmptum īrī; datum īrī; impedītum īrī; īrī dēductum; nocitum īrī; redditum īrī; rescītum īrī; vīsum īrī

____________________

[i] impedītum īrī

[ii] redditum īrī

[iii] datum īrī

[iv] rescītum īrī

[v] īrī dēductum

[vi] nocitum īrī

[vii] absolūtum īrī

[viii] vīsum īrī

[ix] cōnsūmptum īrī

[x] condemnātum īrī

11.02.26: Level 3; the Pater Noster of Juvencus [3]; notes on Latin poetry [2] long and short syllables

[2] Identifying long and short vowels

A syllable is defined as long or short dependent upon the length of the vowel sound. How do you know if a syllable is long or short? There are two important terms to note:

[i] long by nature i.e. the vowel is always long – not only in poetry – for example:

[l.2] NŌ-mĭ-nĭs ¦ Ō-rĀ- ¦ mūs vĕ-nĕ- ¦ rĀ- tⁱŌ ¦ sĀnc- tĭ- fĭ- ¦ cĒ-tŭr

Diphthongs are always long, for example:

[l.1] cĀE-lī

[l.4] rĕ-¦ clĀU-dăt

[l.9] Ēt nōs ¦ hĀUt ă-lĭ-¦ tēr cōn- ¦ cē-dĕ-rĕ ¦ fŌE-nŏ-ră ¦ nōs-trīs

[l.10] Tē-trī ¦ sĀE-vă prŏ- ¦ cūl tēmp- ¦ tā-tⁱō ¦ dĀE-mŏ-nĭs ¦ āb-sĭt

[l.11] ĀE-quĕ mă- ¦

[ii] long by position; this is a crucial feature of Latin poetry:

Where a vowel is followed by two consonants [VCC] – even if those consonants are split between words –the vowel becomes long; there are exceptions but it is important to become familiar with this idea since it is an integral part of the rhythm.

[l.2] The verb ŌrĀmus has two vowels that are long by nature – they are always long. However, -mus is usually short, but in the verse, because it is followed by two consonants, it becomes long: ō-rā- ¦ mŪS ͜ Vĕ-nĕ- [VCC]

All the capitalised vowels in bold are normally short, but here they are long [VCC]:

[l.1] genitor (/o/ usually short) > gĕ-nĭ- ¦ tŌR ͜ Rĕ- [VCC]; in (/i/ usually short) > ĪN ¦ Vēr [VCC]

[l.3] ĪN ͜ Nō- ¦ bīs Pă- tĕr ¦ ĀL-Tĕ tŭ- ¦ ī: trĀN- ¦ QU-ĪL-Lă-quĕ ¦ mŪN-Dō

[l.5] fīat (/a/normally short) > fī- ¦ ĀT ͜ Tŭ-ă

[l.11] tol-lat (/o/ normally short) > tŌL-Lat

[iii] V + X: a vowel followed by /x/ becomes long since /x/ is composed of two consonant sounds /ks/:

[l.7] mox (normally short) > tŭ-ă ¦ mŌX [V + /ks/]

11.02.26: Level 3; Reading (review); [30] Dido’s curse

Didō rēgīna, quae Aenēam valdē amāverat, fugam eius vehementer dolēbat. Ea, postquam frūstrā deōs, frūstrā fortūnam accūsāvit, sē eō gladiō, quem Aenēās eī dōnāverat, necāre parāvit. Dum eī rogus struitur: “Ēn“, inquit, “vir pius, quī simulācra ē Troiā servāta sēcum portat! Ēn pius Aenēās, cui deī ipsī imperant, cuius facta deīs ipsīs placent! At ego tē, Hecatē, vocō, ā quā vindicantur facta impia: Tū eum ipsum sociōsque, quōs sēcum dūcit, Ītaliā arcēbis! Sīn autem fāta nōn sinent, eum bellō quidem et armīs vexābis: mortuōs vidēbit eōs, quōs amāvit, neque diū rēgnābit in eīs terrīs, quās nunc petit! Numquam amīcitia inter eius populum et meum erit, et oppida, quae condet, aliquandō ā cōpiīs Poenōrum vastābuntur. Bellum diuturnum erit, ipsīque pugnābunt et posterī cūnctī!”

Find the Latin:

[i] a pious man, who brings statues

[ii] Aeneas, to whom the gods themselves give commands, …

[iii] and the allies whom he leads with him

[iv] he will see them dead whom he loved

[v] Hecate, by whom wicked deeds are avenged

[vi] in those lands which he now seeks

[vii] Queen Dido, who had greatly loved Aeneas

[viii] the towns which he shall found

[ix] whose deeds (the deeds of whom) please the gods themselves

[x] with the / that sword which Aeneas had given to her

____________________

[i] vir pius, quī simulācra … portat

[ii] Aenēās, cui deī ipsī imperant

[iii] sociōsque, quōs sēcum dūcit

[iv] mortuōs vidēbit eōs, quōs amāvit

[v] Hecatē … ā quā vindicantur facta impia

[vi] in eīs terrīs, quās nunc petit

[vii] Didō rēgīna, quae Aenēam valdē amāverat

[viii] oppida, quae condet

[ix] cuius facta deīs ipsīs placent

[x] eō gladiō, quem Aenēās eī dōnāverat

Queen Dido, who had loved Aeneas very much, was deeply grieving his flight. After she had accused the gods and her fate in vain, she prepared to kill herself with that sword, which Aeneas had given to her. While the funeral pyre was being built for her, she said:

‘Behold, pious man, who carries with him the images saved from Troy! Behold pious Aeneas, whom the gods themselves command, whose deeds please the gods themselves! But I call you, Hecate, by whom wicked deeds are avenged: you will keep him and his companions, whom he leads with him, away from Italy! But if the fates do not allow it, indeed you will harass him with war and arms: he will see them dead whom he loved, and he will not rule long in the lands which he now seeks! Never will there be friendship between his people and mine, and the towns that he will found will one day be devastated by the forces of the Carthaginians. There will be a long war, and they themselves and all the descendants will fight!’

11.02.26: Level 3; Celestial Sphere: from the authors [1] Tacitus

(1) The fate of Tiberius: sealed in one sentence

In Annalēs VI, Tacitus portrays the departure from Rome of the Emperor Tiberius. He is presented as a lonely and isolated figure: Profectiō artō comitātū fuit │ His departure was attended by a small retinue.

The following line appears immediately after Tacitus narrates the departure – which is to be the final exit of Tiberius:

ferēbant perītī caelestium iīs mōtibus sīderum excessisse Rōmā Tiberium ut reditus illī negārētur (Tacitus) │ Experts in celestial matters / heavenly bodies were saying that, by the motions of the stars, Tiberius had departed from Rome in such a way that a return was denied him.

Note: indirect statement with perfect active infinitive

(1) ferēbant perītī … (3) excessisse Rōmā (2) Tiberium │ Experts (1) said … ¦ (2) that Tiberius (3) had departed from Rome [literally: (1) Experts said (2) Tiberius (3) to have departed …

[1] Tacitus’ writing is compact; the action and consequence of that action are conveyed by two verbs: excesisse (departed) – negārētur (denied)

[2] The reference to perītī i.e. ‘skilled’ people as opposed to idle rumour, which adds veracity and mysticism to his narrative

[3] The fate of Tiberius is determined by the stars; the stars prophesy that Tiberius will spend the rest of his life in exile. Therefore, human control is an illusion, which is ironic given Tiberius’ obsession with control.

[4] A moral subtext: the stars articulate what Tiberius’ life choices have already determined i.e. the alignment of character and fate

https://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=resources&s=char-dir&f=tiberius

(2) And, according to Tacitus, the stars weren’t working out too well for Nero either …

Inter quae sīdus comētēs effulsit; dē quō vulgī opīniō est tamquam mūtātiōnem rēgis portendat │Meantime a comet blazed (in the sky), about which the opinion of the common people is that it portends, as it were, a change of king.

Tacitus uses the noun in conjunction with sīdus (star), but the word can stand alone:

comētēs, -ae [1/m] or comēta, -ae [1/f] comet; meteor; shooting star; it is also referred to as:

stēlla crīnīta: long-haired star

Does Tacitus believe that comets are portents of disaster? A 21^st century journalist, especially a sensationlist one, will “spice up” his report by adding unverified detail, simultaneously distancing himself (and avoiding litigation) with allegedly or it is rumoured that. Tacitus himself isn’t stating that Nero is to be dethroned – but others think he might be.

10.02.26: Comenius CVI; the Celestial Sphere [7]; text and vocabulary [6]

[8] Other Circles are the Horizon, │ Aliī Circulī sunt Horīzōn

the Meridian, │ Meridiānus (see previous post)

the Æquator, │ Æquātor,

the two Colures, │ duo Colūrī, 

the one of the Equinocts, │ alter Æquinoxiōrum,*

(of the Spring │ (Vernī,
when the ☉ entreth into ♈; │ quando ☉ ingreditur ♈;
Autumnal │ Autumnālis,
when it entreth in ♎) │ quando ingreditur ♎)

the other of the Solstices, │ alter Solsticiōrum (solstitiōrum)
(of the Summer, │ (Æstīvī,
when the ☉ entreth into ♋ │quando ☉ ingreditur ♋
of the Winter │ Hybernī (hībernī),
when it entreth into ♑) │ quando ingreditur ♑)

the Tropicks, │ duo Tropicī
the Tropick of Cancer, │ Tr. Cancrī,
the Tropick of Capricorn, │ Tr. Capricornī,
and the two │ & duo
Polar Circles, │ Polārēs

[1]

horīzon, horizontis [3/m]: horizon > Engl. deriv. horizontal

aequātor, aequātōris [3/m]: [i] (Classical; rare) coin inspector; [ii] (Mediaeval) equator

colūrus, -ī [2/m]: colure (astronomical term; now rarely, if ever used)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colure

*aequinoctium, -ī [2/n]: equinox < aequus (equal) + nox (night); original text: aequinox(iōrum); possible misspelling or alternative during this period, but the spelling with /x/ is not attested)

aequinoctiālis, -e: (of / pertaing to) the equinox

sōlstitium, -ī [2/n]: solstice (in the text: solsticiōrum); again, note the same spelling shift of -ti- > -ci- which was also in an earlier section of this text: spaciō (CL: spatiō)

[2]

vernus, -a, -um; vernālis, -e: (of / pertaing to) spring; Engl. deriv. vernal

autumnālis, -e: (of / pertaing to) autumn; Engl. deriv. autumnal

aestīvus, -a, -um; aestivālis, -e: (of / pertaing to) summer; Engl. deriv. estival

hībernus, -a, -um (original text with /y/); hībernālis, -e: (of / pertaing to) winter; wintry

[3] “the Tropic(k)s”; used in the text as a noun

tropicus, -a, -um: tropical

tropicus Cancrī: the tropic of Cancer

tropicus Capricornī: the tropic of Capricorn

polāris, -e: (pertaining to) the poles

Hondius Map of America (1606)

From North to South …

SEPTENTRIŌ: North

AMERICA SEPTENTRIŌNĀLIS: North America

TROPICUS CANCRĪ: Tropic of Cancer

AEQUINOCTIĀLIS LĪNEA: equinoctial line; celestial equator

MARE PĀCIFICUM: Pacific ‘sea’ (Ocean)

AMERICA MERĪDIŌNĀLIS: Southern America

TROPICUS CAPRICORNĪ: Tropic of Capricon

TERRA AUSTRĀLIS: The ‘Southern Land’ (i.e. we’re pretty sure something’s there but we don’t know what it is yet, which is why the word incognita (unknown) is often added; it does not refer to Australia since it hadn’t been ‘discovered’ – apart from by the people who lived there).

MERĪDIĒS: South

Note the use of the long /s/ in Hiſpanis

And, for the benefit of the American members of this group (not that I wish a ‘debate’) …

It’s small, but it’s there …

SINUS MEXICĀNUS: the Gulf of Mexico; sinus, -ūs [4/m]: various meanings including [i] curve, fold; [ii] bosom, breast; [iii] gulf, bay

09.02.26: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [24][vi]: the superlative of adjectives

Rōma est urbs pulcherrima │ Rome is a very beautiful city

Equī rēgis sunt pulcherrimī │ The king’s horses are very beautiful

[i] Superlative: in English, longest, most beautiful; in Latin the superlative can also be translated simply as very + the adjective

mōns altissimus: [i] the highest mountain; [ii] a very high mountain

[ii] For almost all adjectives -issimus [masculine], -issima [feminine], issimum [neuter] to the stem:

long¦us, -a, -um: long > longissimus, longissima, longissimum: [i] (the) longest; [ii] very long

[iii] Adjectives which end in -r add -rimus, -a, -um to the masculine nominative singular form i.e. the /r/ is doubled:

pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum: beautiful > pulcher¦rimus, pulcherrima, pulcherrimum: [i] (the) most beautiful; [ii] very beautiful

miser, -a, -um (wretched) > miserrimus, -a, -um

ācer, ācris, ācre (bitter) > ācerrimus, -a, -um

celer, -is, -e (fast) > celerrimus, -a, -um

[iv] 3^rd declension adjectives

As with the comparative, 3^rd declension adjectives which have a stem change – indicated by the genitive singular – will use that stem to form the superlative + -issimus, -a, -um:

audāx: bold > genitive singular: audāc¦is > stem: audāc- > superlative: audācissimus, -a, -um: (the) boldest; very bold

recēns: recent > genitive singular: recent¦is > stem: recent- > superlative: recentissimus, -a, -um: most recent

[v] A small group of adjectives form their superlative by adding -limus, -a, -um to the stem i.e. the /l/ is doubled; the six adjectives listed below are the only ones which form the superlative in this way.

facil¦is, -e: easy > facillimus, -a, -um: easiest

difficilis, -e: difficult > difficillimus, -a, -um: most difficult

similis, -e: similar > simillimus, -a, -um: most similar

dissimilis, -e: dissimilar; different > dissimillimus, -a, -um: most unlike

gracilis, -e: slender > gracillimus, -a, -um: most slender

humilis, -e: humble > humillimus, -a, -um: humblest

Note: even though there are differences in the way in which the superlative ending is added to the stem, look out for the distinctive -¦imus, -a, -um: longissimus; pulcherrimus; audācissimus; facillimus

Link:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/021224-level-2-degrees-of-comparison-14.html