28.11.25: the Domesday Book; reading the manuscript [v] types of abbreviation [iv]; mind your p’s and q’s

Image #1: The most common letters with a horizontal stroke through them were p and q

[i] the /p/ with a stroke through it [ꝑ] can have different meanings i.e. par /por/ pre or, here, -per

ſēꝑ = semper │ always

[ii] ꝗ equals an entire word i.e. quam; can also appear with an additional diacritic indicating abbreviation i.e. ꝗ̃

(5) pꝰ: the letter which looks like a 9 indicates -os or -us or simply -s; it has a distinctive position written above the line

The small [ꝰ] is a good example of a superscript symbol; the term can apply to symbols or letters that are often smaller than the main text and written above the text line.

Combining our p’s and q’s we reach:

pꝰ • ꝗ ¦ rex uenit in iſtam patriā = postquam rex venit in istam patriam │  after ¦ the king came into this land

28.11.25: the Domesday Book; reading the manuscript [iv] types of abbreviation [iii]

(1) Images #1 and #2: In general, horizontal or diagonal lines through the letters: q, p, b, l, h, t indicate that some letters were omitted which needed to be supplied by the reader. In describing the formation of these letters you will come across the terms [i] ascender and [ii] descender:

[i] ascender: refers to the part of the letter that extends above the main body of the text e.g. in b, d; therefore, the horizontal line in ƀ and đ may be described as going through the ascender of the letter

[ii] descender: that part of the letter below the main body e.g. p or q; therefore, a horizontal line in ꝑ and ꝗ may be described as going through the descender of the letter

liƀ = liber; ſine liƀatione = sine liberatione │ transl. without livery i.e. without compensation

quidā liƀ hō = quidam liber homo │ a certain free man

hunđ (the manuscript does not mark the abbreviation [hun∂], but the transcription does) test̃ = hundredum testis / testatur │ witness the Hundred, the term ‘Hundred’ referring to an administrative unit of a county in Anglo-Saxon and Norman England. The entire phrase refers to a local jury i.e. from the Hundred, often comprising 12 men (6 English and 6 Norman) who were asked a set list of questions concerning, for example, tenancy and land values to which they gave sworn answers. The entry is then marked “witness the Hundred” i.e. it is acting as evidence.

https://www.domesdaybook.net/domesday-book/structure-of-domesday-book/hundred

(2) Money: before decimalisation in 1971, English currency was calculated as pounds, shillings and pence abbreviated to L ( = Latin: libra) S ( = Latin: solidus) D ( = Latin: denarius), the £ sign being a development of L i.e. £SD; two of the values are represented in the extract:

(a) ſēꝑ uał III ſoł │ has always been worth 3 shillings

uał = valet; ſoł = Latin solidus, but the term in Middle English refers to the shilling coin

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/solidus

(b) 1 shilling = 12 pence: in the Domesday book the smallest unit of currency recorded is the denarii i.e. the English ‘pence’; it is indicated in the manuscript by a stroke through d: [ð]

The manner in which he writes it is the same as an Old English letter with a specific pronunciation: ð, used interchangably with þ, = /th/ either as in think or in father, but its function here is not connected with OE, and is transcribed as [đ]: XVI ð [transcr. XVI đ] = 16 pence

Image #3: Mediaeval silver pennies

28.11.25: the Domesday Book; reading the manuscript [iii] types of abbreviation [ii]

Two words that crop up when dealing with the manuscripts are worth noting.

The term sigla encompasses different types of scribal abbreviation although it can also indicate the source of a manuscript. However, it is abbreviated forms that are the focus of these posts.

Diacritic refers to signs which are written above or below or through certain letters e.g. German: ä; French: ç; Old English: ð; Polish: ł; Spanish: ñ; Norwegian: ø; Portuguese: õ Czech: ř Our contemporary use of diacritics usually denotes change in pronunciation of the letter e.g. French: comme [hard /c/ = k] but ça [pron: sa]. However, in Mediaeval manuscripts, signs which can be similar to some of these are a tool used to indicate abbreviation, not pronunciation.

(1) Image #1: The horizontal line (which can resemble a Spanish tilde ˜) is not a Latin macron (which shows vowel length), but an indication of missing letters at the end of a word, most frequently, but not necessarily, /m/ or /n/ i.e. nasal consonants. Equally the abbreviation can indicate omission of entire syllables or missing letters within the body of a word.  There are many examples in the text of abbreviation but not the nature of it, the understanding determined by context.

Depending on the script and the scribe, the abbreviation mark can be written vertically or as a curved mark or stroke or as an apostrophe; it really is a question of examining the individual manuscript. While some reference works will give specific letters or letter combinations that an abbreviation represents, that isn’t guaranteed. In the Domesday extract, the writer uses both horizontal and vertical abbreviations that are above the letter but, in one example, it is below it.

(i) -ā = -am; -ē = -em; -ī = in; -ū = um

quidā = quidam │ a certain

in pinkenhā = in Pinckenham [Pickenham]; note that, in the second occurrence of the name, the writer omits the /n/ i.e. in pikenham

idē = idem │ the same

ad ſedū [ſ = s; we’ll look at this in a later post] = ad sedum │ for the purpose of residence

(ii) However, the line can indicate the absence of several letters:

dux̄ = duxit │ he led

fem̅ = feminam │ woman

hō = homo │ man

ten̅ = tenuit │ (he) held

(iii) references to land and land measurements

XXX ać [transcript: c̄; also written in this manuscript as c̃ and c̓] │ 30 ac(res) i.e. they all mark the abbreviation of the same word: Middle English acer / aker from OE æcer (field; unit of land measurement)

ī illa tr̅a = in illa terra │ on that land

tr̅ḛ = terrae │ of land

dim̅ [ = dimidium ] car̃ │ half a ‘plough’; car̃ refers to a ‘plough’, or a ‘car(r)ucate’, a measurement of land estimated at 120 acres: “The notional area of land able to be farmed in a year by a team of 8 oxen pulling a carruca plow” (Wiktionary); the word is derived from CL: carūca / carruca, -ae [1/f] chariot; carriage, but in French it acquired the meaning of ‘plough’ (charrue)

II . ac̃ . ¦ 7 [7 = and; will be discussed in a later post] ¦ dim̅ . ¦ p̆ti . [ = prati] │ 2 acres ¦ and ¦ a half ¦ of meadow; prātus, -ī [2/m] or prātum, -ī [2/n]

(iv) The 4th line of the manuscript begins: ſine dono . r . │ without a grant from the king / the king’s grant, i.e. a good example of a single letter – r – that needs to be understood in context as referring to rēx, rēgis [3/m]: king

27.11.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [17][v]; notes [2] the 5th declension

Two nouns are used in the text which belong to the last declension in Latin: the 5^th declension

Diēs in terrā nōn manet. │ The day (the daytime; the daylight) is not staying on the land.

posterō diē ad scholam ībō│ I shall go to the school on the following day.

Multōs diēs ibi mīles manēbat. │ The soldier stayed there for many days.

Multās rēs de Rōmānīs antīquīs et de Gallīs nārrābat. │ He was telling many things about the Ancient Romans and the Gauls.

[i] There are far fewer 5^th declension nouns than in the other declensions.

[ii] The nominative singular is always -ēs, but remember that other nouns with that same ending e.g. mīles (soldier) and fēlēs (cat) belong to a different declension. Therefore, as always, learn the 5^th declension nouns with the genitive singular which will distinguish them from other declensions.

diēs, diēī [5 m/f]: day

rēs, reī [5/f]: matter; thing; event

[iii] All 5^th declension nouns take the same endings although there is a minor difference in vowel length in the genitive and dative singular:

If the stem ends in vowel, the genitive and dative singular are -ēī [long /ē/] e.g. faci¦ēs, faci¦ēī i.e. -V¦ēī

If the stem ends in a consonant, the genitive and dative singular are -eī [short /e/] e.g. sp¦ēs, sp¦eī i.e. -C¦eī

[iv] Almost all 5^th declension nouns are feminine; diēs is most often masculine but can be feminine in certain usages. Below are some common 5^th declension nouns

aciēs, -ēī [5/f]: battle-line

effigiēs, -ēī [5/f]: likeness; statue > Engl. deriv. effigy

faciēs, -ēī [5/f]: face

ēsuriēs, -ēī [5/f]: hunger

fidēs, -eī [5/f]: faith; loyalty

glaciēs, -ēī [5/f]: ice

merīdiēs, -ēī [5/m]: midday

perniciēs, -ēī [5/f]: ruin; destruction

rabiēs, -ēī [5/f]: rage; madness > Engl. deriv. rabies

speciēs, -ēī [5/f]: look; appearance; kind > Engl. deriv. species

spēs, -eī [5/f]: hope

Links to all posts on the 5^th declension

https://mega.nz/file/vMECUCYD#dC55FRXnm99i4-yzgY5Y5bAnjKb8EClf-_kujBI6olM

27.11.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [17][iv]; notes [1] tense usage

The information in [1] and [2] below is by no means the “whole story”, but shows you that the usage of tenses in Latin and English does not always match.

[1] conditional sentences

sī: if; as in English sī  introduces a conditional clause e.g. “[A] If I have enough money, [B] I’ll buy a new bike” i.e. the condition is [A] having enough money so that [B] can happen; the English sentence can be written the other way around and the meaning remains the same: “[B] I’ll buy a new bike, [A] if I have enough money.”

The tenses that are used in Latin to express this idea are sometimes the same as in English and sometimes different.

[i] The Latin and English tenses match i.e. Latin uses the imperfect tense and English expresses the same idea with a simple past or with “used to”

[A] Sī Gallī satis magnās cōpiās nōn habēbant, ¦ [B] saepe in perīculō erant. │ [A] If the Gauls didn’t have large troops, ¦ [B] they were often in danger.

Sī Rōmānī auxilium habēre dēbēbant, sociī auxilium dare semper parātī erant.  │ If the Romans had to have help, the allies were always prepared to give help.

Sī sociī in perīculō erant, auxilium Romānōs rogābant. │ If the allies were in danger, they used to ask the Romans for help.

[ii] These sentences refer to a condition in the future i.e. the same as the example sentence first given:

“[A] If I have enough money, [B] I’ll buy a new bike”; [A] the ‘if’ clause in English is in the present tense [If I have …] and [B], the main clause, is in the future tense.

In Latin, however, since the entire sentence refers to the future, both verbs are in the future.  

[A] Latin: future tense; English: present tense

[B] Latin and English: future tense

[A] Sī perīculum erit [future] magnum, ¦ [B] sociōs nostrōs auxilium rogābō [future].

[A] Literally: If there will be a great danger ¦ [B] I shall ask our allies for help.

Even though [A] is in the future in Latin, we would translate it as present in English

> [A] If there is a great danger, ¦ [B] I shall ask our allies for help.

Two other examples from the text:

(1)

[A] Sī fortēs erimus … ¦ [B] dux nōbis praemium dabit.

[A] Literally: If we will be brave … ¦ [B] the commander will give us a reward.

> If we are brave, the commander will give us a reward.

(2)

[A] Sī ita cupiēs, ¦ [B] māne posterō diē ad scholam ībō.

[A] Literally: If you will so desire, ¦ [B] I shall go to school on the following day in the morning.

> If you so desire, I shall go to school on the following day in the morning.

[2] The same logic in [1] above also applies here:

Ubi vir erō, ¦ mīles erō … │ When I am a man, I shall be a soldier

But the Latin sentence literally says “When I shall be a man …” i.e. the ‘when’ clause in English is present tense whereas in Latin it is in the future. The same construction exists in, for example, French:

Quand je serai grand, je serai danseur │ When I’m [literally: when I shall be] big, I’ll be a dancer.

27.11.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [17][iii]; review: 1st / 2nd declension of nouns

Carolus et Maria XVII                                                   

[1] Herī Carolus in carrō per silvam ībat. Ubi domum cum arcū et sagittīs vēnit, laetus erat quod mīles Italus erat in casā. Multōs diēs ibi mīles manēbat. Multās rēs dē Rōmānīs antīquīs et dē Gallīs nārrābat. Pictūrās puerō et puellae ostendit quoque. Gallī erant fīnitimī Germānōrum. In Galliā prope Germānōs habitābant. Germānī erant fīnitimī Gallōrum, sed Gallī et Germānī nōn semper erant amīcī. Semper Germānī bellum cupiēbant. Sī Gallī satis magnās cōpiās nōn habēbant, saepe in perīculō erant.                                                             

[2] Rōmānī sociōs habēbant. Sociī erant amīcī Rōmānōrum. Sī Rōmānī auxilium habēre dēbēbant, sociī auxilium dare semper parātī erant. Sī sociī in perīculō erant, auxilium Romānōs rogābant. Tum dux “Nunc, incolae Rōmae,” inquit, “hī sunt sociī nostrī. Auxilium sociīs dare dēbēmus.” Tum iterum cōpiae Rōmānae ad sociōs trāns agrōs properābant.                                                       

[3] Hae fābulae grātae erant puerō quī vītam mīlitis semper laudābat. “Mīles fortis,” inquit, “esse cupiō. Ubi vir erō, mīles erō, et per tēla, per multa perīcula cum duce meō properābō. Equum habēbō, Parātum nōmine. Sī perīculum erit magnum sociōs nostrōs auxilium rogābō. Sociōs dē perīculō nostrō monēbō. Ego et Parātus ad oppidum sociōrum ībimus et epistulam in manibus meīs portābō.”    

[4] “Ante sociōs stābō et cōpiam frūmentī rogābō. Sī fortēs erimus, ego et Parātus, dux nōbis praemium dabit. Equum bonum habēre dēbeō. Equus bonus in bellō fortiter curret et tūtus erō. Incolae nostrī post bellum mē laudābunt et fāma mea multīs in terrīs erit magna. Aliquis mē ducem magnum vocābit.”       

[5] Subitō post hās fābulās Carolus “Cupisne crās hās fābulās Cassiō, amīcō meō, nārrāre?” rogābat.

“Ita,” inquit mīles. “Sī ita cupiēs, māne posterō diē ad scholam ībō et omnibus discipulīs fābulās dē patriā meā, dē aedificiīs oppidī meī, dē bellīs antīquīs nārrābō.”

Nunc est nox. Diēs in terrā nōn manet. Puer, amīcus noster, est laetus quod māne posterō diē mīles ad scholām venīre invītātur. Fābulae omnibus discipulīs erunt grātae.                        

Find the Latin; focus on the words in bold

[1] 2^nd declension

[a]

Our friend is happy

These stories were pleasing to the boy

Do you want to tell these stories to my friend?

I must have a good horse

Carolus was going in a wagon

[b]

These are our allies

Allies were friends of the Romans

The allies were always prepared

(We) will go to the town of the allies

We must give help to the allies

I shall ask our allies for help

I shall warn the allies

I shall stand before the allies

(They) were hurrying towards the allies

[c]

If there is [lit: will be] a great danger

The Germans always used to desire war

(They) will praise me after the war

I shall ask for a supply of grain

The horse will run bravely in the war

(They) were often in danger

I shall warn … about our danger

I shall hurry through many dangers

I shall talk (1) about the buildings (2) of my town and (3) [about] the ancient wars

[2] 1^st declension

(1) My fame will be great (2) in many lands

“Now, (1) inhabitants (2) of Rome,” he said

He showed (1) the pictures (2) to the girl

I shall ask for a supply of grain

I shall go to the school

(He) was in the cottage

They used to live in Gaul

These stories were pleasing

Suddenly after these stories Carolus asked

I shall tell (1) stories (2) about my country

26.11.25: Level 3; indefinites [10]: quis / quid; sī / nisi / num / nē … quis / quid

quis / quid: their most common use – by far – is to ask the questions who and what? However, they can act as indefinites i.e. any, anybody, anything, but their use is rare and generally restricted to the following constructions:

[i] with sī (if)

Sī quis venit, dīc mihi statim │ If anybody comes, tell me immediately

Puerum reddat, sī quis eum petat (Plautus) │ Let her give up the child if anybody asks for him

In praise of cabbage (Cato):

Hanc oportet māne ieiūnum esse. Īnsomnis vel sī quis est seniōsus* hāc eādem cūrātiōne sānum faciēs │ If anyone is sleepless or rather elderly, you can make well by this same treatment

*seniōsus: only attested here

Et sī quis ulcus … habēbit, hanc brassicam errāticam aquā spargitō, oppōnitō; sānum faciēs │ If someone has an ulcer … sprinkle this wild cabbage with water and apply it; you will cure him.

Sī quem pūrgāre volēs, prīdiē nē cēnet … │ If you want to cleanse anybody, he (i.e. the patient) should not dine the previous day

Sī quid anteā malī [genitive] intus erit, omnia sāna faciet │ If anything previously bad is inside, it will make everything healthy

Posteā māne bibat sūcum dēambuletque hōrās IIII, agat, negōtī [genitive] sī quid habēbit │ Early the next morning he should drink the juice and walk about for four hours, (and) if he has any business, he should attend to it

[ii] with nisi (unless; if … not)

nisi quis renātus fuerit ex aquā et Spīritū nōn potest introīre in rēgnum Deī (Vulgate) │ Unless someone is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God [ = If somebody is not born …

nisi quis nōs deus respexerit (Cicero) │ unless some god shows regard for us

ego eō ad forum nisi quid vīs (Plautus) │ I’m going to the forum, unless you want anything [ = if you don’t want anything]

Ego, nisi quid mē vīs, eō lavātum (Plautus) │ Unless you want me for anything, I’m going to take a bath

Nunc quidem, nisi quid tē tenuit, suspicor tē esse in suburbānō (Cicero) │ Now I suppose you are in your suburban estate, unless anything kept you.

[iii] with num

num: surely … not i.e. expecting a negative answer

num + quis = surely not anybody = surely nobody

Num quis negat? (Cicero) │ Does anybody deny it? [ = Surely not anybody denies it / surely nobody denies it]

Num quis Pīsōnī est adsēnsus? (Cicero) │ Did anybody agree with Piso? [i.e. it isn’t *Who agreed?*, but did anybody agree]

In this example you can see that Cicero expects a negative reply by answering the question himself:

Num quem tribūnum plēbis servī M. Tullī pulsāvērunt? nōn opīnor │ Surely the slaves of Marcus Tulius had not assaulted any tribune of the people, had they? I think not.

Num quid vīs? (Plautus) │ Is there anything you want? [literally: Surely, you don’t want anything? = You don’t want anything, do you? i.e. it isn’t *What do you want?*]

[iv] with nē

We look at this use gain in a later, and far broader topic which goes way beyond what is discussed here, but it’s included in this section for reference and for the sake of completeness without going into detail about the grammar that is connected to it:

nē … quis / quid: literally = lest anyone / anything = so that nobody / nothing

It occurs in sentences which convey the idea of

This construction is followed by the subjunctive and so, for now, simply recognise the meaning of nē … quis / quid:

Nē quis sē commovēre audēret, quantum terrōris iniēcit! (Cicero) │ Lest anybody [ = so that nobody] would dare to stir, what an amount of terror he struck into them!

vidēte nē quis vōs dēcipiat per philosophiam et inānem fallāciam (Vulgate) │ See to it (so) that nobody may deceive you through philosophy and empty deceit

Vidēte nē quis vōs sēdūcat (Vulgate) │ Take heed lest any man should deceive you [ = so that no man]

et praecēpit eīs ¦ nē quid tollerent in viā (Vulgate) │ And he commanded them ¦ to take nothing on the journey … [literally: so that they would not take anything]

Image: the clock of Wells Cathedral with the inscription …

NĒ QUID PEREAT: lest anything perish = so that nothing perishes

bona eōrum, nē quid ex contāgiōne noxae remanēret penes* nōs, Rōmam portāvimus (Livy) │ Their goods, so that nothing from the contagion of the crime might remain with us / in our possession, we brought to Rome.

*penes (preposition + accusative) [i] under the command of [ii] (here) in the possession of

Both constructions discussed in this post in the same sentence:

Exsolvāmus religiōne populum, sī quā obligāvimus, nē quid dīvīnī [genitive] hūmānīve [genitive] obstet. (Livy) │ Let us release the people from religious obligation, if in any way we have bound them, so that nothing [ = not anything] divine or human may stand in the way.

26.11.25: Level 3; indefinites [9]: -piam

[1] quispiam [2] quis: these two indefinite pronouns work in the same way as aliquis. In this post we will look at quispiam

[1] quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam (quippiam) / quodpiam: anyone / someone … (or other); anything / something … (or other)

Some Latin grammars interpret this as more general than aliquis hence “… or other” sometimes added as part of the basic meaning.

The first five examples, from Gellius’ Attic Nights, well illustrate that the basic meaning of an indefinite may not be specifically conveyed in English, but think about the ‘general’ idea that underpins them, almost a sense of ‘randomness’. English can convey a similar sense in statements such as: “Some receptionist or other told me the hotel was full.”

[i] Ē mīlitibus, quī in iūre apud eum stābant, interrogāvit quispiam ex mōre … │ Then one of the soldiers who were on trial before him asked in the usual way … [ = literally: from the soldiers … someone asked …]

[ii] Dīxit ibi quispiam nōbīscum sedēns amīcus meus …│ Then a friend of mine sitting with us …

[iii] Atque ibi adulēscēns quispiam … inquit … │ And thereupon a young man … said … [i.e. some young man or other, but who he is has no relevance]

[iv] Tum quispiam, quī cum eō erat, … │ Then one of those who were with him …

[v] Laudābat vēnditābatque sē nūper quispiam in lībrāriā sedēns homō ineptē glōriōsus … │ Lately a foolish, boastful fellow, sitting in a bookseller's shop, was praising and advertising himself, …

[vi] Habēn* tū amīcum aut familiārem quempiam …? (Plautus) │ Have you any friend or intimate acquaintance …?

*contraction: habēs + ne

[vii] Num mīrum aut novom [ = novum] quippiam facit? (Plautus) │ He doesn't do anything wonderful or strange, does he?

[viii] num tū pudīcae cuipiam īnsidiās locās aut quam pudīcam esse oportet?  (Plautus) │ You're not laying snares for some respectable woman, or one that ought to be respectable ?

Four examples from Cicero’s damning indictment of Verres.

[i] Verres has been accused of executing a Roman citizen, Cicero arguing that this action would now allow any other official at all to carry out a similar punishment:

tolle hanc spem, tolle hoc praesidium cīvibus Rōmānīs, cōnstitue nihil esse opis in hāc vōce, 'cīvis Rōmānus sum,' posse impūne praetōrem aut alium quempiam supplicium quod velit in eum cōnstituere quī sē cīvem Rōmānum esse dīcat …

Take away this hope, take away this protection from Roman citizens, establish the fact that there is no assistance to be found in the words “I am a Roman citizen;” that a praetor, or any other (officer), may with impunity order any punishment he pleases to be inflicted on a man who says that he is a Roman citizen …

Similarly, Cicero generalises in the following statements:

[ii] Verrēs … omnia domō eius abstulit quae paulō magis animum cuiuspiam aut oculōs possent commovēre │ Verres … took away from his house everything which could in any uncommon degree delight the mind or eyes of any one.

[iii] quī simul atque in oppidum quodpiam vēnerat │ for as soon as he ever came into any city …

[iv] Note the two indefinites; I have translated them differently although their meanings overlap:

Quis nōs magnō opere attendit umquam in hōc quidem genere causārum, ubi aliquid ēreptum aut ablātum ā quōpiam dīcitur?

In cases of this type, where something is alleged to have been stolen or appropriated by anyone who ever really pays attention to us?