25.03.26: Level 3; Subjunctive [6] independent uses [1] hortatory [ii] practice

Translate: bear in mind that the hortatory subjunctive is expressed by “Let’s / let us …” although it may also translate as “we should” since it can also render the idea of strong suggestion.

[i] Ad Aegyptum prōcēdāmus.

[ii] Cōnsilium capiāmus.

[iii] Per īnsulam errēmus.

[iv] Ab īnsulā navigēmus.

[v] Cum hominibus discēdāmus.

[vi] Nē in oppidō cēnēmus.

[vii] Hostēs oppugnēmus.

[viii] Absīmus.

[ix] Eāmus!

[x] Surgāmus et aedificēmus. (Vulgate)

[xi] Cārissimī dīligāmus invicem. (Vulgate)

[xii] Fīnem loquendī omnēs pariter audiāmus. (Vulgate)

____________________

[i] Let us / we should proceed to Egypt.

[ii] Let’s form a plan.

[iii] Let’s wander through the island.

[iv] Let’s sail away from the island.

[v] Let us depart with the people.

[vi] Let’s not dine in town.

[vii] Let’s attack the enemy.

[viii] Let us be away.

[ix] Let’s go!

[x] Let us rise up and build.

[xi] Dearest ones, let us love one another.

[xii] Let us all hear together the conclusion of the discourse. 

25.03.26: Level 3; Subjunctive [5] independent uses [1] hortatory [i]

A sentence – any sentence – can comprise:

[1] A single independent sentence with one verb: I’m going to the shops.

[2] A principal clause (which could stand alone) together with one or more subordinate clauses (which cannot stand alone):

I’m going to the shops (principal clause) ¦ because I want to buy a cake (subordinate clause).

I’m going to the shops (principal clause) ¦ as soon as the rain stops (subordinate clause).

The Latin subjunctive may be either [1] independent (can stand alone) or [2] dependent (part of a subordinate clause)

Here, we’ll start looking at independent uses.

It’s important, I feel, to deal slowly with the subjunctive. Sure, the Roman authors will give you countless examples but they are often contained within lengthy statements and so it’s better to focus on ‘short and sweet’ ones which are memorable and clearly illustrate the usage:

hortatory subjunctive

(1) The name hortatory subjunctive is derived from the Latin verb hortor, hortārī [1/dep], meaning “to encourage” or “to urge.” It is used to exhort an action, typically translated in English as “Let us…” or, in some contexts, “we should…” The form is always the first person plural present subjunctive.

īmus: we go > eāmus: let us go

gaudēmus: we rejoice > gaudeāmus: let us rejoice

magna facta facimus │  we do great deeds > Prō patriā magna facta faciāmus │ Let us do great deeds for the fatherland.

[i] From the university student song:

Gaudeāmus igitur / Iuvenēs dum sumus, │ Let us, therefore, rejoice / while we are young.

[ii] Catullus 5:

Vīvāmus, mea Lesbia, atque amēmus, │ Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love,

rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum │ and the rumours of rather stern old men

omnēs ūnīus aestimēmus assis! │ let us value them all at just one penny!

[iii] Faciāmus hominem ad imāginem et similitūdinem nostram (Vulgate) │ Let us make humankind in our image and in our likeness.

[iv] Hōs latrōnēs interficiāmus (Caesar) │ Let us kill these robbers.

(2) The negative is formed with nē + the 1^st person plural present subjunctive

canimus: we sing > canāmus: let us sing > nē canāmus: let’s not sing

Nē dēspērēmus │ Let’s not despair.

Nē hīc maneāmus │ Let’s not stay here.

KEY POINTS: the hortatory subjunctive

• from hortor, -ārī [1/dep]: encourage
• always independent
• first person plural present subjunctive
• encourages action; often “let us…” in English
• negative formed with nē + 1st person plural present subjunctive

24.03.26: Describing objects [4]; metals (iv); don’t drink the water, and don’t put on make-up: lead

[i] plumbum, -ī [2/n]: lead

plumbum album: ‘white lead’ was the term used by the Romans for ‘tin’; stannum, -ī [2/n]: (Late Latin) tin

ē / ex plumbō: made of lead

plumbeus, -a, -um: (made of) lead

plumbea aut aēnea fistula  (Celsus) │ a lead or bronze tube

• nec mala mē ambitiō perdit nec plumbeus auster autumnusque gravis (Horace) │ Neither wicked ambition destroys me, nor the leaden south wind and the heavy autumn
• Tacē sīs, faber, quī cūdere solēs plumbeōs nummōs (Plautus) │ Be quiet, will you, smith — you who usually mints lead coins; the remark is an insult or sarcasm, implying dishonest or worthless work since since lead was never used for regular coinage.

plumbātus, -a, -um: made of lead; soldered < verb: plumbō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: make out of lead; solder with lead

lead poisoning

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html

But lead also was known to be dangerous and, for that reason, pipes made of clay were preferred—as Vitruvius, who wrote during the time of Augustus, explains.

“Water conducted through earthen pipes is more wholesome than that through lead; indeed that conveyed in lead must be injurious, because from it white lead [PbCO3, lead carbonate] is obtained, and this is said to be injurious to the human system. Hence, if what is generated from it is pernicious, there can be no doubt that itself cannot be a wholesome body. This may be verified by observing the workers in lead, who are of a pallid colour; for in casting lead, the fumes from it fixing on the different members, and daily burning them, destroy the vigour of the blood; water should therefore on no account be conducted in leaden pipes if we are desirous that it should be wholesome. That the flavour of that conveyed in earthen pipes is better, is shewn at our daily meals, for all those whose tables are furnished with silver vessels, nevertheless use those made of earth, from the purity of the flavour being preserved in them" (VIII.6.10-11).”

[ii] cērussa, -ae [1/f]: white lead, ceruse; used by painters and as a skin whitener; prepared by exposing lead to the vapours of vinegar

Was Elizabeth I killed by her make-up?

The use of white lead as a pigment was detrimental to the human body and caused lead poisoning, skin damage, hair loss and in some cases eventual death. It is possible that Elizabeth I used ceruse; the portraits (the earliest being obviously on the left) would seem to suggest it.

Elizabeth got her iconic red lips through the use of cinnabar.* Cinnabar is a mineral containing mercury. Mercury poisoning can cause memory loss, depression, or in extreme cases, death. Unfortunately for her, when Elizabeth began wearing a wig following her hair loss, the wig was dyed red with even more mercury. It is not exactly surprising that by the end of her life, she was reported to be in a state of deep depression.

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/elizabeth-makeup-0016887

*New Latin: cinnabaris, -is [3/f]

• ōvum in acētō sī diūtius positum fuerit, cortex eius mollēscet et dissolvētur. item plumbum, quod est lentissimum et gravissimum, sī in vāse conlocātum fuerit et in eō acētum suffūsum, id autem opertum et oblītum erit, efficiētur, utī plumbum dissolvātur et fīat cērussa. (Vitruvius) │ If an egg is left for some time in vinegar, its shell will soften and dissolve. Again, if a piece of lead, which is very flexible and heavy, is put in a vase and vinegar poured over it, and the vase covered and sealed up, the lead will be dissolved and turn into white lead.
• Hīs duōbus emplastrīs color niger est… at ex bitūmine nigerrimus… ex cērussā albus (Celsus) │ In these two plasters the colour is black … but the blackest is from bitumen, … white from white-lead.

[iii] metallum, -ī [2/n]: [i] mine, quarry;  [ii] a metal (the product of mining) e.g. gold, silver, iron

metallicus, -a, -um: (Late Latin) made of metal

• Metallīs ¦ plumbī, ferrī, aeris, argentī, aurī tōta fermē Hispānia scatet (Pliny the Elder) │ The whole of Spain altogether teems with mines ¦ of lead, iron, copper, silver, and gold.
• Prīmōs inventōrēs aurī, sīcut metallōrum ferē omnium, septimō volūmine dīximus (Pliny the Elder) │ We have spoken of the first discoverers of gold, as indeed of almost all metals, in the seventh book.

24.03.26: Describing objects [3]; metals (iii)

[i] argentum, -ī [2/n]: silver

ex argentō: made of silver

vāsa coquīnāria ex argentō: cooking vessels made of silver

argenteus, -a,  -um: (made of) silver

nummus argenteus: a silver coin

• lectulī … aureī et argenteī (Vulgate): gold and silver couches (couches of gold and silver)
• ecce mīlle argenteōs dedī frātrī tuō (Vulgate) │ Behold, I have given your brother a thousand silver (pieces)

argentātus, -a, -um: silvery; covered with silver

Livy:

• duo exercitūs erant; scūta alterīus aurō, alterīus argentō caelāvērunt; … │ There were two armies; the shields of one they embossed with gold, those of the other with silver … = one had their shields plated with gold, the other with silver

Livy continues by using aurātus and argentātus to differentiate between the soldiers; he has already pointed out that the shields are covered with gold and silver rather than being made entirely from them:

• … tunicae aurātīs mīlitibus vērsicolōrēs, argentātīs linteae candidae (Livy)  │ Literally: for the gold-covered / gilded soldiers multi-coloured tunics, for the silvered ones tunics of white linen = the tunics of the men with gold plated shields were in variegated colours, those with the silver shields had tunics of white linen

The first image shows a Romano-British silver ingot (late 4^th – early 5^th century) found at the Tower of London (British Museum)

[ii] aes, aeris [3/n]: copper; bronze; brass; cuprum, -ī [2/n]: (Late Latin) copper

ē / ex aere: made of bronze

simulācrum ex aere factum │ a statue / image made of bronze

aēneus, -a, -um: (made of) copper, bronze

equus aēneus: a horse made of bronze

aerātus, -a, -um: covered with bronze / brass

• cum classe nāvium …, in quibus paucae erant aerātae (Caesar) │ with a fleet of … ships, some of which were strengthened with beaks of brass; the text merely states that the ships were covered with brass, but Caesar is specifically referring to the rōstrum (literally: beak), the bronze-covered ram at the prow of the ship; the whole ship could not be made of brass – it would sink!

[iii] ferrum, -ī [2/n]: iron

ē / ex ferrō: made of iron

ferreus, -a, -um: (made of) iron

uncus ferreus: an iron hook

ferrātus, -a, -um: covered with iron

hasta ferrāta: iron-pointed spear; the shaft of a Roman spear was made of hardwood, but the spearhead (which could be up to 60cm in length) was iron

portae ferrātae: iron-clad gates

faber, fabrī [2/m] ferrārius: blacksmith

[iv] chalybs, chalybis [3/m]: iron; steel

chalybēïus, -a, -um: (made of) iron / steel

Note: the rare occurrence in a vocabulary list of a diaeresis, two dots above a vowel (ï) to indicate that it is pronounced separately rather than as a diphthong [ka-ly-be-i-us]; the diaeresis exists in English, for example in the names Brontë and Zoë (the last vowel is pronounced) and, sometimes, in naïve. The diaeresis was not used in Classical Latin writing.

24.03.26: Level 2; Vincent (Latin Reader); LII / LIII; [1] Boadicea; [2] The Roman Advance (ii) grammar review

Claudius, quī in Britanniam vēnerat, paucōs diēs sōlōs manēbat, quod, ut Tacitus nārrat, caelum imbribus et nebulīs erat foedum. Plautius, quī cōpiās in Cantium exposuit, legiōnem vīcēsimam Virocōnium, secundam Iscam, nōnam Lindum mīsit. Posteā Boudicca, rēgīna Icēnōrum, rebelliōnem magnam contrā Rōmānōs, quī bellum in Ordovicēs gerēbant, subitō parāvit. Boudicca oppida multa et castra expugnāvit atque numerum maximum Rōmānōrum necāvit.

From text #1

[1] Find from the first text one example of each of the following:

[i] relative clause

[ii] subordinate clause of reason

[iii] pluperfect tense

[2] Identify the cases in bold and explain why they are being used:

[i] paucōs diēs

[ii] caelum imbribus et nebulīs erat foedum

[iii] numerum maximum Rōmānōrum

[2] The Roman Advance

Rōmānī, postquam Boudiccam superāvērunt, cōpiās Dēvam et Ebūracum dūxērunt. Hōc tempore Rōmānī Ebūracum caput Britanniae fēcērunt. Legiōnēs Rōmānae oppida maxima, Iscam, Devam, Ebūracum tenēbant; cōpiae auxiliārēs, quae erant minōrēs numerō, castra tenēbant. Rōmānī viās multās fēcērunt; per illās cōpiae Rōmānae iter celeriter faciēbant atque auxilium ad suōs mīlitēs celerrimē mittere poterant. Hōc tempore Rōmānī magnam partem īnsulae superāverant.

Text #2

[1] Find from the second text one example of each of the following:

[i] subordinate clause of time (temporal clause)

[ii] relative clause

[iii] comparative adjective

[iv] superlative adjective

[v] superlative adverb

[2] Identify the cases in bold and explain why they are being used:

[i] hōc tempore

[ii] minōrēs numerō

____________________

Text #1

[1]

[i] quī in Britanniam vēnerat; quī cōpiās in Cantium exposuit; quī bellum in Ordovicēs gerēbant

[ii] quod … caelum imbribus et nebulīs erat foedum

[iii] vēnerat

[2]

[i] accusative of duration of time i.e. for how long an action took place

[ii] ablative of cause; the sky was foul because of rain and mists; not an ablative of means since the rain and mists are not instruments acting on the sky, but conditions causing its state

[iii] genitive, specifically partitive genitive i.e. a very large number of Romans

Text #2

[1]

[i] postquam Boudiccam superāvērunt

[ii] quae erant minōrēs numerō

[iii] minōrēs

[iv] maxima

[v] celerrimē

[2]

[i] ablative of time when

[ii] ablative of respect / specification; fewer in (terms / respect of) number

24.03.26: Level 1 (review); presentation; asking prices

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/395022169775724/

Quantī cōnstat? │ How much does it cost?

[i] Quantī cōnstat pulvīnus? │ How much does the cushion cost?

Quantī cōnstat hic pulvīnus? │ How much does this cushion cost?

Quantī cōnstat (hic) cācabus? │ How much does the (this) cooking-pot cost?

Quantī cōnstat (hic) equus? │ How much does the (this) horse cost?

Quantī cōnstat (hic) culter? │ How much does the (this) knife cost?

[ii]

Quantī cōnstat (haec) ōlla? │ How much does the (this) pot cost?

Quantī cōnstat (haec) vacca? │ How much does the (this) cow cost?

Quantī cōnstat (haec) toga? │ How much does the (this) toga cost?

Quantī cōnstat (haec) amphora? │ How much does the (this) amphora* cost?

[iii] Quantī cōnstat (hoc) mālum? │ How much does the (this) apple cost?

Quantī cōnstat (hoc) vīnum?  │ How much does the (this) wine cost?

Quantī cōnstat (hoc) frūmentum? │ How much does the (this) grain cost?

*amphora: tall, narrow, two-handled storage jar and a rounded bottom to allow for storage on ships; used for transporting liquids