01.06.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [28] [ii] language review; imperfect tense

PART ONE

Prīmā lūce Carolus excitātus est. Clāmōrēs nautārum quī multās rēs parābant Carolum excitābant. Puer nōn iam dormīre poterat. Ē fenestrā spectābat. Ibi portum magnum Americae vidēbat. Laetitiam novam sentiēbat quod iterum gentem suam vidēbat. Aedificia urbis nōn iam cēlābantur et Carolō splendida nunc vidēbantur. Etiam figūrae hominum in terrā vidēbantur. Puer nautās spectāre cōnstituit. Itaque sine morā mātrem patremque relīquit et ad locum in quō nautae labōrābant properāvit. Ubīque multa portābantur. Ūnus ex nautīs, quī aliīs imperābat et īnsignī splendidō ducis ōrnābātur, Carolum nōvit quod pater puerī erat nōtus eī. Ubi nauta puerum vīdit, “Hūc venī!” inquit. “Esne laetus quod Americae appropinquāmus?” rogāvit.

Find the Latin:Bottom of Form

[i] (he) was giving orders to others

[ii] (he) was no longer able to sleep

[iii] (they) were preparing many things

[iv] he was adorned / decorated with a badge

[v] he was feeling (could feel) … happiness

[vi] he was looking out of the window

[vii] he was seeing (could see) the large port

[viii] the boy’s father was known to him

[ix] the sailors were working

[x] the shouts … were making Carolus wake up

[xi] the buildings were no longer (being) hidden

[xii] they … seemed splendid

[xiii] figures … could be seen

[xiv] many things were being carried

____________________

[i] aliīs imperābat

[ii] nōn iam dormīre poterat

[iii] multās rēs parābant

[iv] īnsignī … ōrnābātur

[ix] nautae labōrābant

[v] laetitiam … sentiēbat

[vi] ē fenestrā spectābat

[vii] portum magnum … vidēbat

[viii] pater puerī erat nōtus eī

[x] Clāmōrēs … Carolum excitābant

[xi] aedificia … nōn iam cēlābantur

[xii] splendida … vidēbantur

[xiii] figūrae … vidēbantur

[xiv] multa portābantur

20.05.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [27] [iv]: language focus and translation

“Antīquīs temporibus,” inquit pater, “mīlitēs circum iānuam stābant.”

“Cūr hoc fēcērunt?” rogat Carolus.

“Sīc eī rēgēs ā perīculō rapiēbant,” respondet pater. “Saepe rēgēs inimīcōs quī eōs etiam necāre audēbant habēbant. Saepe pictūrās in quibus erant pīla quae paucī ex mīlitibus portābant vīdī. Galeās et gladiōs quoque portābant. Haec erant arma splendida. Signa in quibus erant figūrae avium aut animālium portābantur. Tū exempla bona hōrum signōrum antīquōrum Rōmae vīdistī. Mīlitēs Rōmānī quoque signa in proeliīs portābant. Sīc in mediō proeliō mīlitēs loca sua nōscēbant.”Bottom of Form

Language focus: imperfect tense

audēbant

erant

habēbant

nōscēbant

portābant

portābantur

rapiēbant

stābant

Remember that the imperfect tense can convey:

[i] was / were doing something i.e. referring to a single action that was incomplete

[ii] a repeated action, often expressed in English with ‘used to (do)’ or ‘would (do)’; English may use a simple past tense in translation if the meaning is clear either from context or with the use of, for example, an adverb that indicates that the action was frequentative

[iii] a general situation at the time; background description

Note the following:

[i] Translation can vary, but be careful. The Latin imperfect can be used in situations where English makes a distinction that Latin does not, for example:

[1] John was walking down our street.

[2] John used to walk down our street.

Both of these would normally be expressed by the imperfect tense in Latin, but they do not mean the same thing in English.

The first suggests an action in progress at a particular moment, while the second suggests a habitual action over time.

When translating, you must decide which English form best fits the context, rather than assuming there is only one correct equivalent for the imperfect.

[ii] Saepe pictūrās in quibus erant pīla quae paucī ex mīlitibus portābant vīdī.

This would seem to contradict the previous information in that a repeated action is referred to, indicated by the adverb saepe (often). You would expect an imperfect tense, but Latin uses a perfect. However, compare the following two English sentences:

[1] I often used to go to my grandmother’s house.

[2] I have often bought bread from that shop.

[1] has no sense of ‘beginning or end’; it merely refers to an action that happened frequently

[2] does indicate repeated actions, but ones that were clearly completed

Saepe pictūrās … vīdī. │ I have often seen pictures.

In other words, a Roman writer distinguished between whether an action was ongoing / habitual, or as repeated but complete.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/tenses%3A%20imperfect

____________________

“In ancient times,” says the father, “soldiers used to / would stand around the gate.”

“Why did they do this?” asks Carolus.

“In this way they were protecting the kings from danger,” replies the father. “Often kings had / used to have enemies who even dared / would even dare to kill them. I have often seen pictures in which there were javelins which a few of the soldiers were carrying. They were also carrying helmets and swords. These were splendid weapons. Standards on which were figures of birds or animals were carried. You’ve seen good examples of these ancient standards in Rome. Roman soldiers also carried / would carry / used to carry standards in battles. In this way, in the middle of a battle, soldiers knew their positions.”

09.06.25: Level 1; readings [16]: the good old days; imperfect tense 1st / 2nd conjugation [2]

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Latin_for_beginners_(1911)/Part_II/Lesson_XX

tense signs

Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like was, shall, will, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called tense signs (also known as tense markers).

formation and inflection of the imperfect

The tense sign of the imperfect is -ba- / -bā-, which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:

[1] present stem: amā-

[2] tense sign: -ba-

[3] personal ending: -m

> amā¦ba¦m

The inflection is as follows:

1^st conjugation

amābam: I was loving / used to love

amābās: you (singular) were loving

amābat: (s)he was loving

amābāmus: we were loving

amābātis: you (plural) were loving

amābant: they were loving

2^nd conjugation

monēbam: I was advising / used to love

monēbās: you (singular) were advising

monēbat: (s)he was advising

monēbāmus: we were advising

monēbātis: you (plural) were advising

monēbant: they were advising

Note that the ā of the tense sign -bā- is shortened to -ba- before the personal endings -m, -t and -nt.

meaning of the imperfect

The Latin imperfect describes an act as going on or progressing in past time, like the English past-progressive tense (I was walking). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

Exercises

arō, -āre [1]: plough

cūrō, -āre [1]: care for

desīderō, -āre [1]: desire, long for

dō, dare [1]: give

habitō, -āre [1]: live

labōrō, -āre [1]: work

laudō, -āre [1]: praise

mātūrō, -āre [1]: hurry

narrō, -āre [1]: tell (e.g. a story); recount

necō, -āre [1]: kill

nūntiō, -āre [1]: announce

parō, -āre [1]: prepare

portō, -āre [1]: carry

properō, -āre [1]: rush

pugnō, -āre [1]: fight

vocō, -āre [1]: call

dēleō, -ēre [2]: destroy

habeō, -ēre [2]: have

iubeō, -ēre [2]: order

moveō, -ēre [2]: move

videō, -ēre [2]: see

[1]

[i] vidēbāmus, dēsīderābat, mātūrābās

[ii] dabant, vocābātis, dēlēbāmus

[iii] pugnabant, laudābās, movēbātis

[iv] iubēbant, properābātis, portābāmus

[v] dabās, nārrābant, labōrābātis

[vi] vidēbant, movēbās, nūntiābāmus

[vii] necābat, movēbam, habēbat, parābātis

[2]

[i] you were having (sing and plur), we were killing, they were working

[ii] he was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting

[iii] we were telling, they were seeing, he was calling

[iv] they were living, I was longing for, we were destroying

[v] you were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (sing and plur)

[vi] they were caring for, he was ploughing, we were praising

[3] Niobe and her children (1)

fōrma, -ae, [1/f]: form, beauty

poena, -ae, [1/f]: punishment, penalty

potentia, -ae, [1/f]: power 

rēgīna, -ae, [1/f]: queen 

superbia, -ae, [1/f]: pride, haughtiness

trīstitia, -ae, [1/f]: sadness, sorrow

septem: seven

superbus, -a, -um: proud, haughty 

nōn sōlum . . . sed etiam: not only . . . but also

Niobē, rēgīna Thēbānōrum, erat pulchra fēmina sed superba. Erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā suā marītīque potentiā sed etiam magnō līberōrum numerō. Nam habēbat septem fīliōs et septem fīliās. Sed ea superbia erat rēgīnae causa magnae trīstitiae et līberīs causa dūrae poenae.

Notes:

[i] Erat superba …[1] fōrmā suā … marītīque [2] potentiā … [3] magnō ¦ liberōrum ¦ [3] numerō │ she was arrogant … because of [1] her beauty … [2] the power ¦ of her husband … [3] the large number ¦ of children; the ablative case can be used to express cause

[ii]

rēgīnae [dative] causa ¦ magnae trīstitiae [genitive] │ a cause ¦ of great sadness ¦ to the queen

līberīs [dative] causa ¦ dūrae poenae [genitive] │ a cause ¦ of harsh punishment ¦  for the children

[4] Niobe and her children (2)

sacrum, -ī [2 n]: sacrifice, offering, rite

verbum, -ī [2/n]: word

sedeō, -ēre [2]: sit

volō, -āre [1]: fly 

interfectus, -a, -um: slain

molestus, -a, -um: troublesome, annoying (molest)

perpetuus, -a, -um: perpetual, continuous

Apollō et Diāna erant līberī Lātōnae. Eīs Thēbānī sacra crēbra parābant. Oppidānī amābant Lātōnam et līberōs eius. Id superbae rēgīnae erat molestum. “Cūr,” inquit, “Lātōnae et līberīs sacra parātis? Duōs līberōs habet Lātōna; quattuordecim habeō ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?” Lātōna eīs verbīs īrāta līberōs suōs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollō Diānaque et sagittīssuīs miserōs līberōs rēgīnae superbae dēlent. Niobē, nūper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud līberōs interfectōs et cum perpetuīs lacrimīs eōs dēsīderat.

Notes:

Apollō Diānaque … sagittīs suīs … līberōs rēgīnae … dēlent │ Apollo and Diana … destroy the queen’s children with (by means of) their arrows; the ablative case is used to indicate the means or instrument by which an action is performed

09.06.25: Level 1; readings [16]: the good old days; imperfect tense 1st / 2nd conjugation [1]

Demaratus talks about the time when his country wasn’t occupied by the Romans:

“Multa saecula Athēnae, patria mea, līberae erant. Nōs Graecī līberī erāmus cūnctī, dum in nostrīs oppidīs līberī habitābāmus. Interdum tyrannī in nōnnūllīs oppidīs rēgnāre studēbant, sed Graecī vītam līberam valdē amābant et tyrannōs ut adversāriōs fugāre solēbant.”

Tum Epicharmus: “Pīsistratus quidem multōs annōs imperium Athēnārum obtinēbat, quod bonus et iūstus erat…”

Sed Mārcus: “Dionȳsius autem Syrācūsānīs totidem ferē annōs imperābat, quamquam neque bonus neque iūstus, sed iniūstus et malus erat: Populum enim iniūriīs terrēbat, multōs virōs integrōs necābat. Dionȳsiō quidem magnum rēgnum, magnae dīvitiae erant; neque tamen beātus, immō vērō miser erat, quod semper īnsidiās timēbat.”

[1] This text uses the imperfect tense; this tense describes:

[i] what somebody was doing i.e. an action that was incomplete

[ii] what somebody used to do i.e. an action that happened frequently in the past

[iii] an action that took place or a situation that existed over a period of time with no real sense of beginning or end e.g. what the character of a person was like

dum in nostrīs oppidīs … habitābāmus │ while we were living / used to live in our towns

Nōs Graecī līberī erāmus …│ We Greeks were / used to be free

semper īnsidiās timēbat │ he always feared / used to fear treachery

bonus et iūstus erat │ he was good and just

Pīsistratus … multōs annōs imperium … obtinēbat │ Pisistratus … held political power … for many years

Dionȳsius autem Syrācūsānīs totidem ferē annōs imperābat │ Dionysius ruled the Syracusans for almost as many years.

[2] a verb to look out for is soleō, -ēre [2]: to be accustomed (to doing something); it is used with an infinitive and can translate as somebody who usually does or did something i.e. the verb conveys a frequentative meaning.

Graecī … adversāriōs ¦ fugāre ¦ solēbant │literally: the Greeks ¦ were accustomed ¦ to putting ¦ enemies to flight = the Greeks usually chased their enemies away

[3] Links to all posts on the imperfect tense:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/469186202359320/

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/07/220824-maxey-11-2-past-tenses-2.html

[4] Latin tutorial: imperfect tense

https://youtu.be/3-OLocTTe50

01.05.24: review: imperfect tense [8]; the “imperfect” Catullus

In the first post reviewing the imperfect tense, I made up a little story based on Little Red Riding Hood to show how the imperfect tense is used.

Here are a few lines from the Roman poet Catullus (Catullus 8); we’re not studying the poem here, and so I shall give a translation and then focus on how he uses the imperfect tenses.

Don’t be concerned about other aspects of the grammar; the poem will be looked at again later.

Catullus has just broken up with his girlfriend, Lesbia. That’s a long story! In the poem he is sitting talking to himself:

1. Miser Catulle, dēsinās ineptīre, │ Miserable Catullus, stop playing the fool
2. et quod vidēs perīsse perditum dūcās. │ And what you see has perished, consider it lost
3. Fulsēre quondam candidī tibī sōlēs, │ Bright suns once shone for you
4. cum ventitābās quō puella dūcēbat │ When you would always come to wherever the girl led you.
5.  amāta nōbīs quantum amābitur nūlla. │ loved by us as no girl will ever be loved.
6. Ibi illa multa cum iocōsa fīēbant, │ There when those many playful things happened / took place
7. quae tū volēbās nec puella nōlēbat, │ which you wanted, nor did the girl refuse
8. fulsēre vērē candidī tibī sōlēs. │ bright suns truly shone for you.

[1] All of those imperfect tenses show what the relationship used to be like habitually and over a period of time.

[Line 4] …quō puella dūcēbat: to wherever the girl used to lead you / would lead you i.e. she kept leading him on…

[Line 4] cum ventitābās │ when you would always come; a small point to note: some Latin verbs can add a suffix: veniō, venīre [4]: come; ventitō, ventitāre [1]: often come i.e. the suffix can in itself imply repetition or intensity:

legō, legere [3]: read; lēctitō, lēctitāre [1]: read often; read eagerly

clāmō, clāmāre [1]: shout; clāmitō, clāmitāre [1]: yell, but it suggests more than a single shout; the yelling goes on and on

dictō, dictāre [1]: repeat; dictitō, dictitāre [1]: say (it again and again)

[Line 4] Ventitābās quō puella dūcēbat │ When you would always come to wherever the girl led you.

The impression I have of that line, and the imperfect tenses - especially 'ventitābās' - emphasise it, is that Catullus was completely smitten by her, and, almost like a little puppy, kept on following his “mistress”.

[Line 6] Ibi illa multa cum iocōsa fīēbant │ There when those many playful things used to take place; so, whatever “playful things” were happening, they were happening frequently! But they’re not happening now.

[Line 7] quae tū volēbās nec puella nōlēbat, │ which you wanted, nor did the girl refuse i.e. that was what they both felt over a period of time; whatever playful things they were up to, Catullus kept on wanting them, and she was not in the habit of refusing him!

[2] Three important verbs: [i] fiō, fieri (become; take place) [ii] volō, velle (want) and [iii] nōlō, nōlle: not want / refuse; they have been discussed in previous posts. There is also information in the files.

And I’ve posted an image of Lesbia looking utterly tired of him, and Catullus writing his poem.

 

01.05.24: review: imperfect tense [7]; setting the scene

We do exactly the same in English:

It was a dark and stormy night. The wind was howling through the trees, bats were flying overhead and people were rushing to shelter from the rain.

Phrases connected with the weather or other natural conditions were covered in earlier posts, but here are some in the imperfect tense:

1. Nox erat obscūra et in caelō pallida lūna fulgēbat. │ The night was dark and in the sky a pale moon was shining.

2. Lūna lūcēbat tamquam merīdiē. (Petronius) │ The moon was shining as if it was still midday.

3. Statim urceātim pluēbat. (Petronius) │Immediately it started to rain in bucketfuls.

4. Intus igne calēscēbat dīvīnō. (Thomas of Celano) │ Inside he was growing warm with a divine heat.

5. Sōl splendēbat, nūllus ventus flābat, frīgora erant, ex arboribus pendēbat pruīna vitrea. │ The sun was shining, no wind was blowing, it was cold, and a glassy hoarfrost hung from the trees.

[frīgus, frīgoris [3/n]: cold (but often seen in the plural)]

6. Tōta īllā nocte continenter … ningēbat (Royal Society 1789) │ It was snowing continuously that whole night.

7. Iam nāvibus cinis incīdēbat, …, calidior et dēnsior (Pliny) │ Now ash, hotter and thicker, was falling upon the ships

8. … et iam lūcēscēbat (Livy) │ And now day was appearing (it was dawning)

9. ūnō tempore et longās nāvēs… aestus complēbat, et onerāriās … tempestās adflīctābat (Caesar) │ at the same time, the tide began to fill the ships of war, and the storm began to dash the ships of burden

01.05.24: review: imperfect tense [6]; Julia: a Latin reader (excerpts) [5]

And here is one final (slightly adapted) excerpt with translation, but without comments since all the uses have come up in the previous posts. Every one of the verbs when translated is in the English past simple tense, but all of them in Latin are in the imperfect.

[1] Inter deōs Rōmānōs agricolae nōn sōlum Cererem sed Bacchum quoque adōrābant et in summō honōre habēbant. Bacchus enim vīnum hominibus dabat et multās artēs docēbat. Ad Bacchī ārās agricolae dōna multa, et in prīmīs ūvās vīnumque iūcundum ferēbant, et ārās flōribus laetīs pampinīsque ōrnābant.

Among the Roman gods, the farmers worshipped not only Ceres, but also Bacchus, and held him in the highest honour, for Bacchus gave wine to people and taught many skills. The farmers brought many gifts to the altars of Bacchus, and especially grapes and delicious wine, and they decorated the altars with cheerful flowers and vine-leaves.

[2] Deus igitur vītēs Ītalicās cūrābat, et ā perīculō dēfendēbat. Fōrmōsus erat deus, et, quod vītēs amābat, capillōs suōs pampinīs saepe ōrnābat. Nec Italōs Graecōsque sōlum docēbat, sed ad longinquās terrās nāvigābat, aliīsque gentibus vīnum dabat, artēsque rūsticās docēbat.

The god therefore took care of the Italian vines, and defended (them) from danger. The god was handsome, and because he loved the vines, he often adorned his hair with vine leaves. Nor did he teach only the Italians and the Greeks, but he sailed to distant lands, and gave wine to other nations, and taught rustic arts.

Image: apologies for the irony, but the fresco depicts Bacchus, the god who, according to the text, defended the vines from danger.

But he didn’t defend them from what’s behind him: that’s Mount Vesuvius.

01.05.24: review: imperfect tense [5]; Julia: a Latin reader (excerpts) [4]

Tandem in caelō columbās albās vidēbant. Columbae per caelum [undique] volābant et folia ad locum herbōsum portābant. Parentēs ad locum contendērunt* et ecce! īnfāns in herbā placidus impavidusque dormītābat; columbae in terrā, in arboribus [passim] sedēbant; columbae per caelum volābant, et parvulī corpus foliīs tegēbant. … Post multōs annōs Horātius, iam adolēscēns, Rōmam, magnam urbem, incolēbat. Sed dīvīna rūra et vītam rūsticam semper laudābat.

At last they saw white doves in the sky. The doves were flying [in all directions] through the sky and (were) carrying leaves to a grassy place. The parents hurried* to the place and lo! The child was sleeping, peaceful and undaunted, on the grass; doves sat [here and there / everywhere] on the ground, in the trees; doves flew through the sky, and covered the body of the child with leaves… After many years Horatius, already a young man, inhabited Rome, a great city. But he always praised the divine countryside and the rustic life.

[* perfect tense: to be discussed soon after the review topics are finished, but you can see the difference: they rushed to the place i.e. they did it once and it was finished: not imperfect tense.]

Again, there are some similar uses to the ones in the previous post:

Tandem in caelō columbās albās vidēbant. │ At last they saw [could see] white doves in the sky. They “were seeing” them for a length of time.

Columbae per caelum [undique] volābant. │ The doves were flying [in all directions]; an action in progress and also a sense of randomness i.e. undique (in all directions)

Folia ad locum herbōsum portābant. │They were carrying leaves to a grassy place / a place full of grass; an action in progress

Īnfāns in herbā placidus impavidusque dormītābat. │ The child was sleeping, peaceful and undaunted, on the grass; an action in progress; impavidus (fearless; undaunted) and so the child wasn’t concerned; the child kept on sleeping would work nicely here.

Columbae in terrā, in arboribus [passim] sedēbant. │ Doves were sitting [here and there] on the ground, in the trees; again, an action in progress and, again, the use of passim (here and there; everywhere)

… et parvulī corpus foliīs tegēbant. │ …and were covering [kept covering] the child’s body with leaves; an action in progress and the idea that they kept on doing it would also work.

Post multōs annōs Horātius … Rōmam, magnam urbem, incolēbat. │ After many years Horatius … inhabited [lived in] Rome, a great city. The verb describes a general situation that happened over a period of time with no sense of end.

Sed … vītam rūsticam semper laudābat. │ But he always praised / used to praise … rural life; this was something that he was in the habit of doing 

 

01.05.24: review: imperfect tense [4]; Julia: a Latin reader (excerpts) [3]

Caelum iterum serēnum erat. Iam Rōmānī in Campō Mārtiō iterum ambulābant, sed rēgem nusquam vidēbant. Mox autem Iūlius, iuvenis Rōmānus, per viam Rōmānam iter ad urbem tenēbat. Subitō ā sinistrā, magnum et serēnum, Rōmulum prope viam vidēbat.

The sky was clear again. Now / already the Romans were walking again in the Campus Martius, but they did not see the king anywhere. Soon, however, Julius, a young Roman, was well on his way to the city by the Roman road. Suddenly on the left he saw the great and serene Romulus near the road.

1. Rōmānī in Campō Mārtiō iterum ambulābant. │The Romans were walking again in the Campus Martius, i.e. like the English past continuous; this was an ongoing action, an action in progress

… sed rēgem nusquam vidēbant. │… but they did not see the king anywhere. [“They couldn’t see him anywhere” would work] i.e. they were looking around for him but “weren’t seeing him”; of course, we don’t translate it that way but that is what’s implied as is the sense of this action going on for a length of time

nusquam vidēbant │ literally: they saw him nowhere; there is a suggestion of "randomness" i.e. everywhere they looked, they couldn't see them. Other examples of that are in the next post.

2. iter ad urbem tenēbat │ [1] literally: he was holding the road to the city (we still have it in: the ship maintained its course towards the port) > [2] He was well on his way to the city.

It’s a simple example but it makes the point. When translating from Latin into your native language, I suggest the “two steps”: [1] Translate it literally even if it sounds clumsy because the literal translation matches the grammatical uses of the original Latin. [2] Sit back and only then think about how it would be more fluently rendered in your own language. But don’t bypass step [1]

And be wary of online translations of the Roman authors – poetry in particular - because some translators think that they wrote the Aeneid, and not Virgil, and sometimes go off on flights of fancy, writing what they want to say, rather than what the original author said! Schoolbooks and other textbooks stick as closely as they can to the original and, if I’m translating quotations, I also try to do that otherwise the translation can be misleading.

3. Here is a good example from Aquinas which also shows another way the imperfect tense can be used.

nōn [hūc et illūc] [i] ībat, nec perambulābat vīcōs et mūnicipia, sed [iī] iter tenēbat versus Ierusālem. │ He was not going [here and there] traversing the villages and towns, but kept on his way straight towards Jerusalem. Note the use of the imperfect to suggest [i] ‘randomness’ with no sense of end, and that [ii] he kept on doing something but, again, no suggestion that the action was completed.

A Russian speaker would recognise [i] immediately: Ya khodil v parke; Russian uses an imperfective aspect meaning “I was walking about in the park i.e. with no particular sense of direction.

4. Subitō ā sinistrā … Rōmulum prope viam vidēbat. │Suddenly he saw [could see]… Romulus near the road.

Think about: “I saw a little bird in a tree” but there is a suggestion of a length of time; you didn’t suddenly see the bird and then look away; you saw it / you could see it for a while. Latin is conveying that idea.

And that is also a general point: Roman authors may use different tenses to convey different ideas, but just stick to the main uses otherwise you end up tied in knots trying to work out why they used them!

30.04.24: review: imperfect tense [3]; Julia: a Latin reader (excerpts) [2]

In angulō Tiberis Campus Mārtius iacēbat. In Campō Mārtiō iuvenēs Rōmānī corpora dīligenter exercēbant. Ita firma et valida habēbant corpora. Post lūdōs in flāvīs Tiberis undīs natābant. Ita Tiberis corpora fessa recreābat. Hīc forte Rōmulus cīvibus suīs iūra dabat; bonōs cīvēs laudābat; malōs cīvēs culpābat.

At the corner of the Tiber lay the Campus Martius (Field of Mars). In the Campus Martius the young Romans diligently exercised / trained their bodies. Thus, they had firm and strong bodies. After the games they swam in the yellow waves of the Tiber. Thus the Tiber revived their tired bodies. Here perhaps Romulus gave / issued laws to his citizens; he praised good citizens; he blamed bad citizens.

Again, we see the same uses:

In angulō Tiberis Campus Mārtius iacēbat. │ The Field of Mars lay at the corner of the Tiber i.e. it always lay there; it didn’t suddenly move somewhere else!

Ita firma et valida habēbant corpora. │ Thus, they had firm and strong bodies, i.e. that was the general condition of their bodies over a period of time.

Actions which they used to do or regularly did:

Corpora dīligenter exercēbant. │ They diligently exercised / used to exercise their bodies.

In flāvīs Tiberis undīs natābant. │They swam / used to swim / would swim in the yellow waves of the Tiber.

Hīc forte Rōmulus cīvibus suīs iūra dabat. │ Here Romulus perhaps used to issue laws to his citizens.

bonōs cīvēs laudābat; malōs cīvēs culpābat.│He would praise good citizens; he would blame bad citizens.

30.04.24: Youtube; Latin Tutorial; imperfect tense

30.04.24: review: imperfect tense [2]; Julia: a Latin reader (excerpts) [1]

An excerpt that shows the imperfect tense in use.

Rōmulus erat Mārtis fīlius. Mārs erat deus bellī et armōrum. Mīlitēs Rōmānī Mārtem adōrābant et in Mārtis ārīs victimās mactābant. Rōmulus igitur mīlitēs et arma vehementer amābat. Urbis Rōmae prīmus rēx erat. Sed virī sōlum urbem habitābant; neque uxōrēs neque sorōrēs habēbant.

Romulus was the son of Mars. Mars was the god of war and weapons. Roman soldiers worshipped Mars and sacrificed victims on the altars of Mars. Romulus, therefore, greatly loved the soldiers and weapons. He was the first king of the city of Rome. But only men inhabited the city; they had neither wives nor sisters.

So, the excerpt shows what the general situation was over a period of time or actions that they habitually performed

Rōmulus erat Mārtis fīlius │ Romulus was the son of Mars.

Urbis Rōmae prīmus rēx erat. │Romulus was the first king of the city of Rome.

Rōmulus igitur mīlitēs … amābat. │ Romulus, therefore, greatly loved the soldiers …. i.e. he didn’t love them one day and hate them the next (even if they lost, which they sometimes did)

Sed virī sōlum urbem habitābant │But only men inhabited the city.

...neque uxōrēs neque sorōrēs habēbant. │They had neither wives nor sisters.

Mīlitēs Rōmānī Mārtem adōrābant. │Roman soldiers worshipped / used to worship / would worship Mars

Mīlitēs Rōmānī … in Mārtis ārīs victimās mactābant. │Roman soldiers made sacrifices on the altars of Mars, i.e. it was something that they habitually did.

30.04.24: review: imperfect tense [1]; usage; the imperfect Little Red Riding Hood

Apart from the present tense of all the conjugations, two other tenses have been discussed in earlier posts:

[i] the imperfect tense

[ii] the future tense

Here, we’ll look again at the imperfect tense and how it is used.

The word ‘imperfect’ in everyday English suggests that something has not been done well, but its original meaning – from Latin – is ‘un│finished’: im│perfectum.

French and German have imperfect tenses: j’allais; ich ging. Russian uses an imperfective aspect in its verbs.

English does not have a single separate imperfect tense but uses a variety of constructions to convey the following ideas:

[1] I was walking along the road │ when I suddenly saw my friend.

• was walking conveys that an action that was ongoing – it wasn’t finished; in English grammar that is called the past progressive / continuous i.e. it was in progress.

[2] Little Red Riding Hood used to visit her grandmother.

• 'Used to' conveys something that a person did frequently – in English grammar we would say that it was habitual or frequentative i.e. it was done on a regular basis.

English can complicate matters by using other verb forms that are also used as other tenses:

When I was a little boy, │I [i] visited my grandparents every summer │ and in the mornings we [ii] would walk in the forest.

[i] and [ii] have other tense usages in English, but they can also be used, as they are used here, to convey the same idea of actions that were habitually performed i.e. more than once. English often combines these with expressions of time: I visited my grandparents every summer; in the mornings we would walk in the forest

[3] When I was a little boy, │ I visited my grandparents …

When I was a little boy, …

When I lived in Paris …

• The expressions convey something that lasted over a period of time

[4] The Greeks attacked the Trojans for ten years

• The suggestion here is that the Greeks kept on attacking the Trojans. The translation here could also be: The Greeks had been attacking the Trojans for ten years.

[5] Suddenly the brave soldier ran towards the enemy’s battle-line.

Did he get there, or did a Carthagininan archer put a stop to it? The basic English verb does not imply that.

Suddenly the brave soldier started running ….

• English needs some other form to convey the idea that the action started; in Latin grammar this is known as the inceptive use (from Latin: incipiō, incipere [3-iō]: begin)

Latin uses a single verb form to convey all of the five concepts above: the imperfect tense.

And here’s a stupid little story to show them all:

The ‘imperfect’ Little Red Riding Hood

When Little Red Riding Hood lived in Fairytale Land, she used to visit her grandmother who had a house in the forest. Little Red Riding Hood would buy doughnuts for her grandmother and always bought them from Starbucks. One day, when she was walking through the forest, a big bad wolf kept staring at her. She was scared of wolves, and so she started heading towards the police station.

[1]

Little Red Riding Hood lived in Fairytale Land.

Her grandmother had a house in the forest.

She was scared of wolves.

• These three suggest what was the general situation over a period of time

[2]

She used to visit her grandmother.

She would buy doughnuts.

She always bought them.

• Habitual actions, actions that were done regularly or more than once

[3]

She was walking through the forest.

• Process: this was an action that was ongoing with no suggestion that she ever got to grandmother’s house

[4]

A big bad wolf kept staring at her.

• an action that continued for a period of time

[5]

She started heading towards the police station

• Inceptive: it refers to the beginning of the action with no suggestion that she reached it

Now look at this one:

The ‘perfect’ Little Red Riding Hood

One day Little Red Riding Hood’s mother gave her a basket of doughnuts and told her to go to her grandmother’s house. Little Red Riding Hood promised to obey her mother. When Little Red Riding Hood entered the woods a wolf came up to her. "Good day to you, Little Red Riding Hood," the wolf said. "Thank you, wolf," she replied. Then the wolf ate her.

None of these would be expressed by the imperfect in Latin because they all refer to one-off, single actions in the past. Latin uses a different tense for these – the perfect tense – which has not yet been discussed in the group. Once the review posts are over, we’ll look at it in detail.

28.03.24: the imperfect tense [10]

This is a short follow-up on the previous post; here are examples of the imperfect tense of eō, īre which appear in the works of the authors.

[1] At ego ad tē ībam. (Plautus.) │ But I was on my way to see you

[2] Ībam forte Viā Sacrā (Horace) │ I happened to be going along the Sacred Way

[3] Quō nunc ībās? (Plautus) │ Where were you going just now?

[4] Ībat forte domum (Lucilius) │ He happened to be going home

[5] Quid intereā? ībatne ad Bacchidem? (Terence) │ What <did he do> in the meantime? Did he used to visit Bacchis?

And the verb can have prefixes which change the meaning, but the imperfect will be the same:

[1] Itaque ab¦ībam invītus (Plautus) │ That’s why I was leaving (going away) unwillingly

[2] Ad¦ībam ad istum fundum (Cicerō) │ I was approaching (going to) that estate

[3] Quom [= cum] ex¦ībam domō (Plautus) │ When I was going out of the house

[4] Ubī forās cum aurō illīc ex¦ībant (Naevius) │ As they were going outside from that place with gold

[5] Cum Gallus amōre per¦ībat (Vergil) │ When, for love, Gallus lay dying

[6] Id Helvētiī ratibus ... trāns¦ībant. (Caesar) │ The Helvetians were going across that (river) with rafts.

28.03.24: the imperfect tense [9] imperfect tense of [i] possum, posse [ii] volō, velle [iii] eo, īre; the “domino effect”

Britannia antiqua (excerpts) [4]; translation in the comments

“Multī mortuōs cremābant, sīcut Graecī et Rōmānī: exstant in Cantiō sepulchra cum urnīs pulchrē ornātīs. Exstant etiam nummī Britannicī, aureī, argenteī, aēneī. Esseda quoque fabricābant: nōn plānē inhūmānī erant, sī rotās ferrātās essedōrum et nummōs aureōs aēneōsque fabricāre poterant. Britannīs antīquīs magnus numerus gallōrum gallīnārumque erat; animī, nōn escae, causā curābant, ut Gāius Iūlius affirmat. Sed incolae mediterrāneōrum et Calēdoniī ferī et barbarī erant. Mortuōs humābant. Agrī cultūrae operam nōn dabant; nōn frūmentō sed ferīnā victitābant. Deōrum fāna in lūcīs sacrīs et silvīs ātrīs erant. Sacra cūrābant Druidae. Sacra erant saeva: virōs, fēminās, līberōs prō victimīs sacrificābant. Inter sē saepe pugnābant; captīvōs miserōs vēnumdābant, vel cruciābant et trucīdābant: nōnnumquam simulācra magna, plēna victimīs hūmanīs, cremābant. Populōrum inter sē discordiae victōriam Rōmānōrum parābant.”

Vocabulary

cruciō, cruciāre [1]: crucify

ēsca: food

fabricō, fabricāre [1]: manufacture

fānum: shrine

ferīna: game; flesh of wild animals

ferrātus, -a, -um: fitted with iron

gallīna: hen

gallus: rooster

humō, humāre [1]: bury

inhūmānus, -a, -um: uncivilised

lūcus: grove

mediterrānea: Midlands (not Mediterranean)

onrnātus, -a, -um: decorated

pulchrē: beautifully; adverb < pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum: beautiful

rota: wheel

sacer, sacra, sacrum: sacred; sacra (plural): sacred rites

sacrificō, sacrificāre [1]: sacrifice

sepulcrum: tomb

simulācrum: image; likeness; statue; effigy

sī: if

trucīdō, trucīdāre [1]: slaughter

vēnumdō, vēnumdāre [1]: sell

victima: sacrificial victim

victitō, victitāre [1]: feed (on)

Notes

[1] animī, nōn ēscae, causā curābant

They looked after (these animals) not for the sake of food but for amusement

animus: many different meanings e.g. soul; life force; intellect; mind; spirit

[2] nōn frūmentō [ablative] sed ferīnā[ablative] victitābant: they would not feed on grain but on game

[3] virōs, fēminās, līberōs prō victimīs sacrificābant

prō + ablative: this preposition has many different meanings e.g. [i] for [ii] for the sake of; on behalf of [iii] before; in front of. As is often the case in Latin, you need to see the word in context to get to its meaning. Here, they sacrificed men, women and children as sacrificial victims.

[4] (sī) rotās ferrātās … fabricāre poterant: (if) they were able to manufacture iron-clad wheels..

In a previous post, mention was made of the “domino” effect i.e. once you knock one down, the rest follow, which is a reason why the small number of irregular verbs in Latin really pose little challenge. Once you know the first part, the rest follows:

eram: I was

You have the first part; just add the personal endings

erās: You (sg.) were

erat: he / she / it was

erāmus: we were

erātis: you (pl.) were

erant: they were

And the same applies to other irregular verbs:

• possum, posse: be able

This is the same verb as above with a contraction of potis(able) as a prefix:

pot¦eram: I was able; I could

pot¦erās: you (sg.) were able; you could

pot¦erat: he / she / it could

pot¦erāmus: we could

pot¦erātis: you (pl.) could

pot¦erant: they could

And the domino effect continues:

• volō, velle: want

volēbam: I was wanting

volēbās: you (sg.) were wanting

volēbat: he / she / it was wanting

etc.

• eō, īre: go

ībam: I was going / I used to go

ībās: You (sg.) were going / used to go

ībat: he / she / it used to go

etc.

____________________

Many cremated the dead, as in Greece and Rome: there are tombs in Kent with beautifully decorated urns. There also exist British coins of gold, silver, and bronze. They also manufactured chariots: they were not completely uncivilised if they could manufacture iron-clad chariot wheels and gold and bronze coins. The ancient Britons had a great number of cockerels and hens; as Gaius Julius maintains, they took care of them not for the purpose of food but for amusement. But the inhabitants of the Midlands and Caledonia were wild and barbarous. They buried the dead. They paid no attention to the cultivation of the land. They did not feed on grain but on game. The shrines of the gods were in sacred groves and in dark forests. The Druids took care of religious rites. Their rites were savage: they sacrificed men, women, and children for their victims. They often fought with each other. They would sell the miserable captives, or crucified and slaughtered them. Sometimes they cremated a large effigy, full of human victims. The disagreements among themselves prepared the way for the victory of the Romans.

27.03.24: the imperfect tense [8]

Britannia antiqua (excerpts) [3]; translation in the comments

Hīc amita mea “Nōnne in oppidīs habitābant?” inquit. Et ille “Oppida aedificābant,” inquit “sed, sī Gāius Iūlius vēra affirmat, oppida Britannōrum antīquōrum loca firmāta erant, nōn loca ubi habitābant. Sed Britannia merīdiāna crēbra erat incolīs et aedificiīs. Sīc narrat Caesar in librō quintō Bellī Gallicī. Multī ūnā habitābant, ut putō.” “Itaque nōn plānē barbarī erant," inquit amita mea. Et ille: “Incolae Cantiī agrī cultūrae operam dabant, atque etiam mercātūrae. Nam Venetī ex Galliā in Britanniam mercātūrae causā nāvigābant. Britannī frūmentum, armenta, aurum, argentum, ferrum, coria, catulōs vēnāticōs, servōs et captīvōs exportābant; frēna, vitrea, gemmās, cētera importābant. Itaque mediocriter hūmānī erant, nec multum dīversī ā Gallīs.”

Vocabulary

catulus: young dog; puppy

catulus vēnāticus: young hunting dog

firmātus, -a, -um: fortified

frēnum: bridle

locus: place; this noun has two plurals [i] locī (places) [ii] loca: region; geographical area

mediocriter: moderately; tolerably

mercātūra: commerce

plānē: altogether

Venetī: a tribe on the west coast of Gaul

vitreus, -a, -um: made of glass; vitrea (plural): things made of glass i.e. glass vessels

Notes

[1] hīc: blink and you’ll miss it! Hīc with a long /ī/ is not the same as hic [with a short /i/], haec, hoc: this. Hīc with long /ī/ means “here” or “at this place”; in the text the best translation would be “at this point”

[2] inquit: he / she says or said depending on context

Note also: “… inquit amita mea. Et ille: …” ¦ “…my aunt said. And he (said) …”; the word for “said” (inquit) is not repeated. It often occurs in this kind of “he said, she said” exchange. The verb ait [(s)he says / said] is also frequently found.

[3] vērus, -a, -um: true; vēra, literally “true things”: the truth

[4] creber, crebra, crebrum: crowded; followed by the ablative: crēbra erat incolīs et aedificiīs ¦ crowded with inhabitants and buildings

[5] puto, putāre [1]: think; ut putō “as I think” can translate as “in my opinion”

[6] causā: “for the sake of”; follows its noun and takes the genitive: mercātūrae causā ¦ for the sake ofcommerce

[7] nec multum dīversī … and not much different …

See the next post for notes on ille.

Note below and image from Salisbury Museum

“These gold coins from about 100 BC were discovered in south Wiltshire, the only hoard of its type from the area. The coins were minted by the local Durotriges tribe. The use of gold, combined with the elaborate decoration on the coins, point to the wealth and power of this tribe.”

____________________

At this point my aunt said, "They lived in towns, didn’t they?" And he said, "They used to build towns," but, if Gaius Julius is stating the truth, the towns of the ancient Britons were fortified places, not the places where they dwelt. But southern Britain was packed with inhabitants and buildings. Caesar talks about it in that way in the fifth book of the Gallic War. Many lived together, I think.” "And so, they were not altogether barbarians," said my aunt. And he said: "The inhabitants of Kent gave attention to agriculture, and also to trade. For the Veneti sailed from Gaul to Britain for commercial purposes. The Britons used to export grain, cattle, gold, silver, iron, leather, young hunting dogs, slaves, and captives; they would import bridles, glassware, gems, and other things. Therefore, they were tolerably humane, and not much different from the Gauls."