09.01.27: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXVI [2] (1) deponent verbs; (2) subjunctive usage; (3) participial constructions

THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR [1]

Pompēiō amīcīsque eius superātīs atque omnibus hostibus ubīque victīs, Caesar imperātor Rōmam rediit et extrā moenia urbis in campō Mārtiō castra posuit. Tum vērō amplissimīs honōribus adfectus est. Dictātor creātus est, et eī triumphus ā senātū est dēcrētus. Quō diē dē Gallīs triumphum ēgit, tanta multitūdō hominum in urbem undique cōnflūxit ut omnia loca essent cōnferta. Templa patēbant, ārae fūmābant, columnae sertīs ōrnātae erant. Cum vērō pompa urbem intrāret, quantus hominum fremitus ortus est! Prīmum per portam ingressī sunt senātus et magistrātūs. Secūtī sunt tībīcinēs, signiferī, peditēs laureā corōnātī canentēs: “Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, quī subēgit Galliam,” et “Mīlle, mīlle, mīlle, mīlle Gallōs trucīdāvimus.” Multī praedam captārum urbium portābant, arma, omnia bellī īnstrūmenta. Secūtī sunt equitēs, animōsīs atque splendidissimē ōrnātīs equīs vectī, inter quōs Pūblius adulēscēns fortissimus habēbātur. Addūcēbantur taurī, arietēs, quī dīs immortālibus immolārentur. Ita longō agmine prōgrediēns exercitus sacrā viā per forum in Capitōlium perrēxit.

(1) review: deponent verbs

Deponent verbs look passive but they are active in meaning which can lead to misunderstanding since their forms are the same. You should become familiar with deponent verbs so that you recognise them when they occur in texts. A large number of them have been discussed in previous posts, but reference lists of the most common ones have also been given here.

Compare in the text [i] the passive forms of verbs and [ii] the deponent verbs:

[i]

amplissimīs honōribus adfectus est | he was bestowed with the highest honours

dictātor creātus est | he was made dictator

eī triumphus ā senātū est dēcrētus | a triumph was decreed for him by the senate

columnae sertīs ōrnātae erant | the columns had been decorated with garlands

Pūblius … fortissimus habēbātur. | Publius was regarded as the bravest

addūcēbantur taurī, arietēs, … | Bulls and rams were being led along, …

… quī dīs immortālibus immolārentur | … which were to be sacrificed to the immortal gods.

[ii]

sequor, sequī, secūtus sum [3/deponent]: follow

ingredior, ingredī, ingressus sum [3-iō / deponent]: enter

orior, orīrī, ortus sum [4/deponent]: arise

secūtī sunt equitēs | the horsemen followed; not the horsemen *were followed*

secūtī sunt tībīcinēs | the flute-players followed

ingressī sunt senātus et magistrātūs | the senate and magistrates entered

quantus hominum fremitus ortus est! | what a great roar of people arose!

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/deponent%20verbs

(2) review: subjunctive usage

[i] Cum vērō pompa urbem intrāret

[ii] arietēs, quī … immolārentur

[iii] tanta multitūdō hominum in urbem undique cōnflūxit ut omnia loca essent cōnferta

(3) review: participial constructions

[i] Pompēiō amīcīsque eius superātīs …

[ii] omnibus hostibus ubīque victīs …

[iii] equitēs … splendidissimē ōrnātīs equīs vectī

[iv] peditēs laureā corōnātī …

[v] peditēs laureā corōnātī canentēs …

[vi] Ita longō agmine prōgrediēns exercitus …

____________________

After Pompey and his friends had been defeated, and all the enemies everywhere had been conquered, Caesar the commander returned to Rome and pitched camp outside the city walls in the Campus Martius.

Then indeed he was honoured with the highest distinctions. He was made dictator, and a triumph was decreed for him by the senate. On the day on which he celebrated his triumph over the Gauls, such a crowd of people poured into the city from all directions that every place was packed. The temples were open, the altars were smoking, and the columns had been decorated with garlands.

And when the procession entered the city, what a great roar of people arose! First the senate and magistrates entered through the gate. The flute-players followed, standard-bearers, and infantry crowned with laurel, singing: “Behold Caesar now triumphs, who has conquered Gaul,” and “A thousand, a thousand, a thousand, a thousand Gauls we have slain.”

Many were carrying the spoils of captured cities — weapons, all the equipment of war. The cavalry  followed, riding on [literally: conveyed by] spirited and most splendidly decorated horses, among whom the young man Publius was regarded as the bravest. Bulls and rams were being led along, which were to be sacrificed to the immortal gods.

Thus, advancing in a long procession, the army made its way along the Sacred Way through the Forum and on to the Capitoline.

03.01.27: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXV [7] (1) impersonal passive; (2) connecting relative; (3) participial constructions; (4) subjunctive; (5) indirect statement

CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY; THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA [2]

Plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, tandem cōpiae adversae ad Pharsālum in Thessaliā sitam castra posuērunt. Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī quī veterānās legiōnēs quae Gallōs et Germānōs superāverant vehementer timēbant. Quōs ante proelium commissum Labiēnus lēgātus, quī ab Caesare nūper dēfēcerat, ita adlocūtus est: “Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum. Omnibus interfuī proeliīs neque temerē incognitam rem prōnūntiō. Perexigua pars illīus exercitūs quī Gallōs superāvit adhūc superest. Magna pars occīsa est, multī domum discessērunt, multī sunt relictī in Italiā. Hae cōpiae quās vidētis in citeriōre Galliā nūper cōnscrīptae sunt.” Haec cum dīxisset, iūrāvit sē nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum esse. Hoc idem Pompēius et omnēs reliquī iūrāvērunt, et magnā spē et laetitiā, sīcut certam ad victōriam, cōpiae ē castrīs exiērunt.

Item Caesar, animō ad dīmicandum parātus, exercitum suum ēdūxit et septem cohortibus praesidiō castrīs relictīs cōpiās triplicī aciē īnstrūxit. Tum, mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus, tubā signum dedit. Mīlitēs prōcurrērunt et pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxērunt. Neque vērō virtūs hostibus dēfuit. Nam et tēla missa sustinuērunt et impetum gladiōrum excēpērunt et ōrdinēs cōnservāvērunt. Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equitēs Pompēī aciem Caesaris circumīre cōnātī sunt. Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem, quae ad id tempus quiēta fuerat, prōcurrere iussit. Tum vērō integrōrum impetum dēfessī hostēs sustinēre nōn potuērunt et omnēs terga vertērunt. Sed Pompēius dē fortūnīs suīs dēspērāns sē in castra equō contulit, inde mox cum paucīs equitibus effūgit.

(1) review: impersonal passive

Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est | on both sides there was a long and fierce battle

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/impersonal%20passive

pugnō, -āre: fight; it is an intransitive verb, meaning that it cannot take a direct object. Other examples of intransitive verbs include:

currō, -ere: run

dormiō, -īre: sleep

eō, īre: go

veniō, -īre: come

Intransitive verbs cannot have passive forms with a subject e.g. *he has been slept*, *they were being run*. However, passive forms of intransitive verbs without a subject are used to convey impersonal ideas.

pugnātum est | literally: it was fought

Translations will vary but focus not on who performed the action, but on the action itself:

> There was fighting going on / people were fighting / ‘they’ fought / a battle was taking place

Pugnātum est ab utrīsque ācriter (Caesar)

• There was fierce fighting on both sides [ literally: ‘it’ was fought bitterly …]

Ea mē spectātum tulerat per Dionȳsia. postquam illō ventum est, iam, ut mē collocāverat, exorītur ventus turbō (Plautus)

• She had taken me to see (the show) at the Dionysiac festival. After we’d arrived there, just as she had settled me, a storm wind arose.

Ergō ex omnibus locīs urbis in forum curritur (Livy)

• Therefore, from all parts of the city people are running into the forum.

Macte novā virtūte, puer: Sīc ītur ad astra (Vergil)

• Be blessed in your new courage, boy; this is the way to the stars / one goes to … [literally: In this way it is being gone …]

Ad arma conclāmātum est (Livy)

• The cry ‘to arms!’ was raised.

Et Rōmam inde frequenter migrātum est, ā parentibus maximē ac propinquīs raptārum (Livy)

• And from there, there was frequent migration to Rome, especially by the parents and relatives of those / the women who had been abducted.

Magnīs opibus dormītur in urbe (Juvenal)

• Only with great wealth is it possible to sleep / do people sleep in the city.

(2) review: connecting relative pronouns

[i] Quōs … Labiēnus lēgātus … ita adlocūtus est:

[ii] Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, …

(3) review: participial constructions

[i] Pompēius dē fortūnīs suīs dēspērāns …

[ii] mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus …

[iii] plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, …

[iv] septem cohortibus … relictīs …

[v] pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxērunt …

[vi] tēla missa sustinuērunt …

(4) review: subjunctive

[i] Haec cum dīxisset, …

[ii] Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī …

(5) review: indirect statement

[i] Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum

[ii] iūrāvit sē … in castra nōn reversūrum esse

____________________

After several lighter engagements had been fought, at last the opposing forces pitched camp at Pharsalus, situated in Thessaly. Although Pompey’s army was twice as large as Caesar’s, there were nevertheless many who greatly feared the veteran legions that had defeated the Gauls and the Germans. Before the battle was joined, Labienus, the lieutenant who had recently defected from Caesar, addressed them as follows:

“Do not suppose that this is an army of veteran soldiers. I have been present at all the battles, and I do not rashly pronounce on a matter I do not know. A very small part of that army which defeated the Gauls still survives. A large part has been killed; many have gone home; many have been left behind in Italy. These forces which you see in Cisalpine Gaul have recently been levied.”

When he had said this, he swore that he would not return to camp unless as victor. Pompey himself and all the rest swore the same, and with great hope and joy, as though victory were certain, the troops marched out from the camp.

Caesar likewise, his mind prepared for battle, led out his army and, seven cohorts having been left behind to guard the camp, drew up his forces in a triple line. Then, as the soldiers were burning with eagerness to fight, he gave the signal with the trumpet. The soldiers charged forward and once the javelins had been thrown, drew their swords. Nor indeed did courage fail the enemy: they both withstood the missiles that had been hurled, met the assault of the swords, and kept their ranks. On both sides the fighting went on long and fiercely, and no one gave ground. Then Pompey’s cavalry tried to outflank Caesar’s line. When Caesar noticed this, he ordered the third line, which up to that time had been at rest, to charge. Then indeed the exhausted enemy could not withstand the attack of fresh troops, and all turned their backs. But Pompey, despairing of his fortunes, made his way on horseback to the camp, and soon afterwards fled from there with a few horsemen.

20.12.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXIV [2] (1) gerunds and gerundives; (2) subjunctive; (3) grammatical terms

THE CITY IS TAKEN; THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED [1]

Omnibus rēbus necessāriīs ad oppugnandum ā Pūbliō comparātīs, dēlīberātur in conciliō quod cōnsilium oppidī expugnandī ineant. Tum ūnus ex centuriōnibus, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, “Ego suādeō,” inquit, “ut ab eā parte, ubi aditus sit facillimus, aggerem exstruāmus et turrim prōmoveāmus atque ariete admōtō simul mūrum discutere cōnēmur.” Hoc cōnsilium cum omnibus placēret, Caesar concilium dīmīsit. Deinde mīlitēs hortātus ut priōrēs victōriās memoriā tenērent, iussit aggerem exstruī, turrim et arietem admovērī. Neque oppidānīs cōnsilium dēfuit. Aliī ignem et omne genus tēlōrum dē mūrō in turrim coniēcērunt, aliī ingentia saxa in vīneās et arietem dēvolvērunt. Diū utrimque ācerrimē pugnātum est. Nē vulnerātī quidem pedem rettulērunt. Tandem, dē tertiā vigiliā, Pūblius, quem Caesar illī operī praefēcerat, nūntiāvit partem mūrī ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse. Quā rē audītā Caesar signum dat; mīlitēs inruunt et magnā cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt.

(1) review: gerunds and gerundives

Omnibus rēbus necessāriīs ad oppugnandum ā Pūbliō comparātīs | With all the necessary things for attacking having been prepared by Publius

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/gerund

cōnsilium oppidī expugnandī | literally: a plan of the town to be captured > a plan for capturing the town

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/gerundive

(2) review: subjunctive

Translate and identify the types of subjunctive being used in these extracts. Choose from the list below; one is used twice.

[i] “Ego suādeō,” inquit, “ut ab eā parte … aggerem exstruāmus et turrim prōmoveāmus atque ariete admōtō simul mūrum discutere cōnēmur.

[ii] … ubi aditus sit facillimus, …

[iii] Deinde mīlitēs hortātus ut priōrēs victōriās memoriā tenērent, …

[iv] dēlīberātur in conciliō quod cōnsilium oppidī expugnandī ineant.

[v] Hoc cōnsilium cum omnibus placēret, …

circumstantial clause

clause of characteristic

indirect command

indirect question

(3) review: grammatical terms

If, at this level, you are using any Latin grammar book then there will be a consistent set of terms that are used by authors. Match the words and phrases from the text and the grammatical terms that describe them.

____________________

With all the necessary things for attacking having been prepared by Publius, it is debated in council what plan they should adopt for capturing the town. Then one of the centurions, a man very experienced in military matters, said, “I advise that from that side where the approach is easiest we build a rampart and move forward a tower, and, with the battering ram brought up, try at the same time to break through the wall.” Since this plan pleased everyone, Caesar dismissed the council. Then, having urged the soldiers to keep their previous victories in mind, he ordered that a rampart be built and that a tower and battering ram be brought up. Nor did the townsmen lack a plan: some threw fire and every kind of missile from the wall onto the tower, others rolled huge stones down onto the mantelets and the battering ram. For a long time the fighting was carried on very fiercely on both sides, and not even the wounded drew back a step. At last, at the third watch, Publius, whom Caesar had put in charge of that work, reported that a part of the wall, weakened by the blows of the battering ram, had collapsed. This having been heard, Caesar gives the signal; the soldiers rush in and capture the town with great slaughter of the enemy.

16.12.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXIII [3] (1) subjunctive; (2) indirect statement; (3) participial constructions

THE STORMING OF A CITY

Pūblius plūrīs diēs in Germāniā morātus in Galliam rediit, et ad Caesaris castra sē contulit. Ille quia molestē ferēbat Gallōs eius regiōnis obsidēs dare recūsāvisse et exercituī frūmentum praebēre nōluisse, cōnstituit eīs bellum īnferre. Agrīs vāstātīs, vīcīs incēnsīs, pervēnit ad oppidum validissimum quod et nātūrā et arte mūnītum erat. Cingēbātur mūrō vīgintī quīnque pedēs altō. Ā lateribus duōbus situm, praeruptō fastīgiō ad plānitiem vergēbat; ā quārtō tantum latere aditus erat facilis. Hoc oppidum oppugnāre, cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen cōnstituit Caesar. Et castrīs mūnītīs Pūbliō negōtium dedit ut rēs ad oppugnandum necessāriās parāret.

Rōmānōrum autem oppugnātiō est haec. Prīmum turrēs aedificantur quibus mīlitēs in summum mūrum ēvādere possint; vīneae fīunt quibus tēctī mīlitēs ad mūrum succēdant; pluteī parantur post quōs mīlitēs tormenta administrent; sunt quoque arietēs quī mūrum et portās discutiant. Hīs omnibus rēbus comparātīs, deinde agger ab eā parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vīneīs ad ipsum oppidum agitur. Tum turris in aggere prōmovētur; arietibus quī sub vīneīs conlocātī erant mūrus et portae discutiuntur; ballistīs, catapultīs, reliquīsque tormentīs lapidēs et tēla in oppidum coniciuntur. Postrēmō cum iam turris et agger altitūdinem mūrī adaequant et arietēs moenia perfrēgērunt, signō datō mīlitēs inruunt et oppidum expugnant.

(1) review: subjunctive

Translate the following extracts focussing on the constructions in bold:

[i] Hoc oppidum oppugnāre, cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen cōnstituit Caesar.

[ii] Pūbliō negōtium dedit ut rēs ad oppugnandum necessāriās parāret.

[iii] Prīmum turrēs aedificantur quibus mīlitēs in summum mūrum ēvādere possint;

[iv] vīneae fīunt quibus tēctī mīlitēs ad mūrum succēdant

[v] pluteī parantur post quōs mīlitēs tormenta administrent;

[vi] sunt quoque arietēs quī mūrum et portās discutiant

(2) review: indirect statement

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/indirect%20statement

Translate the following extract. Remember that the grammatical term indirect statement may not refer exclusively to what somebody said, but, here, what somebody thought or felt:

Ille quia molestē ferēbat Gallōs eius regiōnis obsidēs dare recūsāvisse et exercituī frūmentum praebēre nōluisse, …

(3) review: participial constructions

Translate the following extracts focussing on the constructions in bold:

[i] Pūblius plūrīs diēs in Germāniā morātus in Galliam rediit, …

[ii] Agrīs vāstātīs, vīcīs incēnsīs, pervēnit ad oppidum …

[iii] Et castrīs mūnītīs Pūbliō negōtium dedit

[iv] Hīs omnibus rēbus comparātīs, …

[v] signō datō mīlitēs inruunt …

____________________

Publius, after staying / having stayed for several days in Germany, returned to Gaul and made his way to Caesar’s camp. Caesar, because he was displeased that the Gauls of that region had refused to give hostages and had been unwilling to supply grain to the army, decided to make war upon them.

After the fields had been laid waste and the villages burned, he came to a very strongly fortified town, which was defended both by nature and by workmanship. It was surrounded by a wall twenty-five feet high. On two sides it was situated on a slope, with a steep incline falling down to the plain; from the fourth side alone was access easy.

Although it was a most difficult task to attack this town, Caesar nevertheless decided to undertake it. And, after the camp had been fortified, he assigned Publius the task of preparing [lit: so that he might prepare] the things necessary for the attack.

The Roman method of attack, however, is as follows. First, towers are built by which the soldiers may be able to climb up onto the top of the wall; mantlets are made by which the soldiers, being covered, may approach the wall; screens are prepared behind which the soldiers may operate the engines; there are also battering rams which may smash the wall and the gates.

When all these things have been prepared, then a rampart is built from that side where the approach is easiest and is pushed forward with the mantlets right up to the town. Then a tower is moved forward on the rampart; by means of the rams, which had been placed under the mantlets, the wall and gates are battered down; by ballistae, catapults, and the other engines, stones and missiles are hurled into the town.

Finally, when the tower and ramp now match the height of the wall and the rams have broken through the defences, the signal having been given, the soldiers rush in and capture the town.

07.12.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXII [3] (1) subjunctive; (2) indirect statement; (3) participial constructions

PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY; ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS 

Initā aestāte Caesar litterīs certior fīēbat et per explōrātōrēs cognōscēbat plūrīs cīvitātēs Galliae novīs rēbus studēre et contrā populum Rōmānum coniūrāre obsidēsque inter sē dare atque cum hīs Germānōs quōsdam quoque sēsē coniūnctūrōs esse. Hīs litterīs nūntiīsque commōtus Caesar cōnstituit quam celerrimē in Gallōs proficīscī, ut eōs inopīnantīs opprimeret, et Labiēnum lēgātum cum duābus legiōnibus peditum et duōbus mīlibus equitum in Germānōs mittere. Itaque rē frūmentāriā comparātā castra mōvit. Ab utrōque rēs bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium fīnīs pervēnit ut spatium cōpiās cōgendī nōn darētur; et Labiēnus dē Germānīs tam grave supplicium sūmpsit ut nēmō ex eā gente in reliquum tempus Gallīs auxilium dare audēret.

Hoc iter in Germāniam Pūblius quoque fēcit et, cum ibi morārētur, multa mīrābilia vīdit. Praesertim vērō ingentem silvam mīrābātur, quae tantae magnitūdinis esse dīcēbātur ut nēmō eam trānsīre posset, nec quisquam scīret aut initium aut fīnem. Quā dē rē plūra cognōverat ā mīlite quōdam quī ōlim captus ā Germānīs multōs annōs ibi incoluit. Ille dē silvā dīcēns, “Īnfīnītae magnitūdinis est haec silva,” inquit; “nec quisquam est huius Germāniae quī initium eius sciat aut ad fīnem adierit. Nāscuntur illīc multa tālia animālium genera quālia reliquīs in locīs nōn inveniuntur. Sunt bovēs quī ūnum cornū habent; sunt etiam animālia quae appellantur alcēs. Hae nūllōs crūrum articulōs habent. Itaque, sī forte concidērunt, sēsē ērigere nūllō modō possunt. Arborēs habent prō cubīlibus; ad eās sē applicant atque ita reclīnātae quiētem capiunt. Tertium est genus eōrum quī ūrī appellantur. Hī sunt paulō minōrēs elephantīs. Magna vis eōrum est et magna vēlōcitās. Neque hominī neque ferae parcunt.”

(1) review: subjunctive

[i] cum-clauses: circumstantial

cum ibi morārētur, …

• while he was lingering / remained there, …

[ii] purpose

Caesar cōnstituit … proficīscī, ut eōs … opprimeret, …

• Caesar decided to set out, in order to overwhelm them ...

[iii] result

nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium fīnīs pervēnit ut spatium cōpiās cōgendī nōn darētur;

• for Caesar reached the enemy’s territory so quickly that no time was given for mustering forces.

… quae tantae magnitūdinis esse dīcēbātur (1) ut nēmō eam trānsīre posset, nec quisquam (2) scīret aut initium aut fīnem.

• … which was said to be of such great size (1) that no one could cross it, (2) nor would anyone know either its beginning or its end.

et Labiēnus dē Germānīs tam grave supplicium sūmpsit ut nēmō … dare audēret.

And Labienus inflicted such severe punishment on the Germans that no one … dared … to give …

• [iv] characteristic

nec quisquam est huius Germāniae (1) quī initium eius sciat aut ad fīnem (2) adierit.

• Nor is there anyone in this Germany (1) who knows its beginning or (2) has reached its end.

(2) review: indirect statement

[1] Two principal clauses with constructions that regularly signal indirect statements:

… Caesar litterīs (1) certior fīēbat ¦ et per explōrātōrēs (2) cognōscēbat | Caesar (1) was informed by letter(s) and (2) learned from scouts …

[2] 4 indirect statements all dependent upon the principal clauses:

plūrīs cīvitātēs Galliae novīs rēbus (1) studēre … | (that) several states of Gaul were eager for revolution

et contrā populum Rōmānum (2) coniūrāre … | and were conspiring against the Roman people

obsidēsque inter sē (3) dare … | and were giving hostages among themselves

atque cum hīs Germānōs quōsdam quoque sēsē (4) coniūnctūrōs esse. | and (that) certain Germans as well were going to join themselves with them.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/indirect%20statement

(3) review: participial constructions

Translate the following extracts focussing on the constructions in bold:

[i] Ille dē silvā dīcēns, … inquit;

[ii] Caesar cōnstituit … proficīscī, ut eōs inopīnantīs opprimeret, …

[iii] Hīs litterīs nūntiīsque commōtus Caesar cōnstituit …

[iv] ā mīlite quōdam quī ōlim captus ā Germānīs

[v] … atque ita reclīnātae quiētem capiunt.

[vi] Itaque rē frūmentāriā comparātā …

____________________

At the beginning of summer, Caesar was being informed by letters and was learning through scouts that several states of Gaul were eager for revolution, were conspiring against the Roman people, were giving hostages among themselves, and that certain Germans as well were going to join themselves with them. Moved by these letters and reports, Caesar decided to set out against the Gauls as quickly as possible, in order to crush them while they were unprepared, and to send the legate Labienus into Germany with two legions of infantry and two thousand cavalry.

Accordingly, after the grain supplies had been arranged, he moved camp. The operation succeeded well on both sides; for Caesar reached the enemy’s territory so rapidly that no time was given for assembling forces; and Labienus inflicted such severe punishment on the Germans that no one of that people dared thereafter to give assistance to the Gauls.

This journey into Germany was also made by Publius, and while he stayed there he saw many remarkable things. He especially admired a vast forest, which was said to be of such great size that no one could cross it, nor did anyone know either its beginning or its end.

On this matter he had learned more from a certain soldier who, having been captured by the Germans at one time, lived there for many years. Speaking about the forest, he said: “This forest is of infinite extent; and there is no one in this part of Germany who knows its beginning or has reached its end.

Many kinds of animals are born there which are not found in other places. There are oxen which have a single horn; there are also animals called elks. These have no joints in their legs. Therefore, if by chance they fall down, they cannot by any means get up again. They use trees as resting places; they lean against them and, thus supported, take their rest.

There is a third kind of animal called urus. These are slightly smaller than elephants. They are very powerful and very fast. They spare neither man nor wild beast.”

03.12.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXI [2] (1) subjunctive; (2) participial constructions

THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED

Cum iam sex hōrās pugnātum esset ac nōn sōlum vīrēs sed etiam tēla Rōmānōs dēficerent, atque hostēs ācrius instārent, et vāllum scindere fossamque complēre incēpissent, Caesar, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, suīs imperāvit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent, et, signō datō, ex castrīs ērumperent. Quod iussī sunt faciunt, et subitō ex omnibus portīs ērumpunt. Atque tam celeriter mīlitēs concurrērunt et tam propinquī erant hostēs ut spatium pīla coniciendī nōn darētur. Itaque reiectīs pīlīs comminus gladiīs pugnātum est. Diū et audācter hostēs restitērunt et in extrēmā spē salūtis tantam virtūtem praestitērunt ut ā dextrō cornū vehementer multitūdine suōrum aciem Rōmanam premerent. Id imperātor cum animadvertisset, Pūblium adulēscentem cum equitātū mīsit quī labōrantibus auxilium daret. Eius impetum sustinēre nōn potuērunt hostēs et omnēs terga vertērunt. Eōs in fugam datōs Pūblius subsecūtus est ūsque ad flūmen Rhēnum, quod ab eō locō quīnque mīlia passuum aberat. Ibi paucī salūtem sibi repperērunt. Omnibus reliquīs interfectīs, Pūblius et equitēs in castra sēsē recēpērunt. Dē hāc calamitāte fīnitimae gentēs cum certiōrēs factae essent, ad Caesarem lēgātōs mīsērunt et sē suaque omnia dēdidērunt.

(1) review: subjunctive usage

[1] cum-clauses: circumstantial

Id imperātor cum animadvertisset, … | When / since the commander had noticed this, …

fīnitimae gentēs cum certiōrēs factae essent … | When the neighbouring tribes had been made aware …

[2] purpose

Pūblium … mīsit quī …auxilium daret. | He sent … Publius … to give help

[3] result

[i] tantam virtūtem praestitērunt ut …  aciem Rōmanam premerent.

(they) showed such great courage that … they were pressing the Roman line

[ii] In this sentence, two phrases introduce a result clause:

Atque (1) tam celeriter mīlitēs concurrērunt et (2) tam propinquī erant hostēs ut spatium pīla coniciendī nōn darētur.

And the soldiers ran together (1) so quickly and the enemy were (2) so close that no space was given for throwing javelins.

[4] This text gives examples of lengthier sentences containing multiple clauses, a common feature of Classical Latin literature:

The first sentence of the text uses multiple subjunctive forms; look out for the conjunctions that introduce subordinate clauses, in this case [A] cum and [B] ut

[A] Cum iam sex hōrās pugnātum esset ac nōn sōlum vīrēs sed etiam tēla Rōmānōs dēficerent, atque hostēs ācrius instārent, et vāllum scindere fossamque complēre incēpissent, Caesar, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, suīs imperāvit [B] ut proelium paulisper intermitterent, et, signō datō, ex castrīs ērumperent.

[A] All four subjunctive verbs are dependent upon cum (circumstantial) i.e. cum does not need to be repeated.

Cum iam sex hōrās (1) pugnatum esset ac nōn sōlum vīrēs sed etiam tēla Rōmānōs (2) dēficerent, atque hostēs ācrius (3) instārent, et vāllum scindere fossamque complēre (4) incēpissent, …

When (1) the fighting had already gone on for six hours, and not only strength but also weapons (2) were failing the Romans, and the enemy (3) were pressing on more fiercely, and (4) had begun to tear apart the rampart and fill in the ditch …

[B] Both verbs are dependent upon ut (introducing purpose clauses) i.e. ut does not need to be repeated

… Caesar, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, suīs imperāvit ut proelium paulisper (1) intermitterent, et, signō datō, ex castrīs (2) ērumperent.

Caesar, a man most skilled in military affairs, gave orders to his men that (1) they should pause the battle for a short time and, once the signal had been given, (2) burst out from the camp.

(2) review: participial constructions

Translate the following extracts focussing on the constructions in bold:

[i] Pūblium … mīsit quī labōrantibus auxilium daret.

[ii] Eōs in fugam datōs Pūblius subsecūtus est

[iii] signō datō

[iv] Itaque reiectīs pīlīs comminus gladiīs pugnātum est.

[v] omnibus reliquīs interfectīs

____________________

When they had already been fighting for six hours, and not only their strength but also their weapons were failing the Romans, and the enemy were pressing more fiercely and had begun to cut through the rampart and fill up the ditch, Caesar, a man most skilled in military affairs, ordered his men to suspend the battle for a short time and, when the signal was given, to burst out from the camp.

They do what they have been commanded, and suddenly break out from all the gates. And the soldiers ran together so quickly and the enemy were so close that no space was given for throwing javelins. Therefore, the javelins having been thrown aside, they fought hand-to-hand with swords.

For a long time and bravely the enemy held their ground and, in their final hope of safety, showed such great courage that from their right wing they were strongly pressing the Roman line with a multitude of their own men.

When the commander had noticed this, he sent the young Publius with the cavalry to give help to those who were struggling. The enemy were not able to withstand his charge and all turned in flight. Publius pursued them, after they had been put to flight, as far as the River Rhine, which was five miles distant from that place. There few found safety for themselves. All the rest having been killed, Publius and the cavalry returned into the camp.

When the neighbouring tribes had been made aware of this disaster, they sent envoys to Caesar and surrendered themselves and all their possessions.

29.11.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXX [3] subjunctive

THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

Illīs in castrīs erant duo centuriōnēs, fortissimī virī, T. Pullō et L. Vorēnus, quōrum neuter alterī virtūte cēdere volēbat. Inter eōs iam multōs annōs īnfēnsum certāmen gerēbātur. Tum dēmum fīnis contrōversiae hōc modō factus est. Diē tertiō postquam Pūblius pervēnit, hostēs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, ācerrimum impetum in castra fēcērunt. Tum Pullō, cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs vidērentur, “Cūr dubitās,” inquit, “Vorēne? Quam commodiōrem occāsiōnem exspectās? Hic diēs dē virtūte nostrā iūdicābit.” Haec cum dīxisset, extrā mūnītiōnēs prōcessit et in eam hostium partem quae cōfertissima vidēbātur inrūpit. Neque Vorēnus quidem tum vāllō sēsē continet, sed Pullōnem subsequitur. Tum Pullō pīlum in hostīs immittit atque ūnum ex multitūdine prōcurrentem trāicit. Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostēs scūtīs prōtegunt et in Pullōnem omnēs tēla coniciunt. Eius scūtum trānsfīgitur et tēlum in balteō dēfīgitur. Hic cāsus vāgīnam āvertit et dextram manum eius gladium ēdūcere cōnantis morātur. Eum ita impedītum hostēs circumsistunt.

Tum vēro eī labōrantī Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cōnfestim ā Pullōne omnis multitūdō sē convertit. Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorēnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit. Sed īnstāns cupidius īnfēlīx, pede sē fallente, concidit.

Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō, atque ambō incolumēs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnēs sē recipiunt. Sic inimīcōrum alter alterī auxilium dedit nec dē eōrum virtūte quisquam iūdicāre potuit.

review: subjunctive usage

cum-clauses:

[i] circumstance

cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs vidērentur, … | when / since the Romans seemed to be too slow

Haec cum dīxisset, … | When he had said this (these things) …

[ii] concessive (‘although’); look out for cum … tamen (nevertheless); tamen is often included to indicate this clause type:

Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat | Vorenus, although he is his enemy, nevertheless gives assistance

21.11.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXIX [3] subjunctive

HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED

Exercitus quī in hostium fīnibus bellum gerit multīs perīculīs circumdatus est. Quae perīcula ut vītāret, Rōmāni summam cūram adhībēre solēbant. Adpropinquantēs cōpiīs hostium agmen ita dispōnēbant ut imperātor ipse cum plūribus legiōnibus expedītīs prīmum agmen dūceret. Post eās cōpiās impedīmenta tōtīus exercitūs conlocābant. Tum legiōnēs quae proximē cōnscrīptae erant tōtum agmen claudēbant. Equitēs quoque in omnīs partīs dīmittēbantur quī loca explōrārent; et centuriōnēs praemittēbantur ut locum castrīs idōneum dēligerent. Locus habēbatur idōneus castrīs quī facile dēfendī posset et prope aquam esset. Quā dē causā castra in colle ab utrāque parte arduō, ā fronte lēniter dēclīvī saepe pōnēbantur; vel locus palūdibus cīnctus vel in flūminis rīpīs situs dēligēbātur. Ad locum postquam exercitus pervēnit, aliī mīlitum in armīs erant, aliī castra mūnīre incipiēbant. Nam quō tūtiōrēs ab hostibus mīlitēs essent, nēve incautī et imparātī opprimerentur, castra fossā lātā et vāllō altō mūniēbant. In castrīs portae quattuor erant ut ēruptiō mīlitum omnīs in partīs fierī posset. In angulīs castrōrum erant turrēs dē quibus tēla in hostīs coniciēbantur. Tālibus in castrīs quālia dēscrīpsimus Pūblius ā Caesare exceptus est.

review: subjunctive usage

[1] purpose

[i] ut + subjunctive

Quae perīcula ut vītāret, Rōmāni … solēbant.

• in order to avoid these dangers, the Romans were accustomed to …

et centuriōnēs praemittēbantur ut locum castrīs idōneum dēligerent.

• and centurians were sent ahead in order to choose a suitable location for the camp…

In castrīs portae quattuor erant ut ēruptiō … fierī posset.

• There were four gates at the camp so that a sortie … could be made

[ii] nē + subjunctive introducing a negative purpose clause

… nēve … opprimerentur

• … or so that they would not be overwhelmed [literally: lest they be overwhelmed]

[iii] quī + subjunctive; referring specifically to the person who is to perform the task

Equitēs quoque … dīmittēbantur quī loca explōrārent.

• The cavalry were also sent out in order to scout the terrain [literally: who were to scout]

[iv] quō + comparative + subjunctive

Nam quō tūtiōrēs ab hostibus mīlitēs essent, …

• So that the soldiers might be safer, …

[2] result

… agmen ita dispōnēbant ut imperātor ipse … prīmum agmen dūceret.

• (They) arranged the column in such a way that the general himself …. would lead the front line.

[3] characteristic

Locus habēbatur idōneus castrīs quī facile dēfendī posset et prope aquam esset.

• The place was considered suitable for a camp which could easily be defended and would be near water.

____________________

An army which wages war in the territory of the enemy is surrounded by many dangers. In order to avoid these dangers, the Romans were accustomed to take the greatest care. As the forces of the enemy approached, they arranged the column in such a way that the general himself, with several light-armed legions, would lead the front line. Behind these troops they placed the baggage of the whole army. Then the legions which had been most recently enrolled closed the whole column. The cavalry also were sent out in all directions to scout the ground; and centurions were sent ahead to choose a place suitable for a camp. A place was considered suitable for a camp which could easily be defended and would be near water. For this reason the camp was often pitched on a hill steep on both sides but gently sloping in front; or a place surrounded by marshes or situated on the banks of a river was chosen.

After the army had reached the place, some of the soldiers remained under arms, others began to fortify the camp. For, so that the soldiers might be safer from the enemy and might not be caught off guard and unprepared, they fortified the camp with a wide ditch and a high rampart. In the camp there were four gates so that a sortie of the soldiers could be made in all directions. At the corners of the camp there were towers from which missiles were hurled against the enemy. In such a camp as we have described, Publius was received by Caesar.

17.11.26: Level 3+ (Review); P. Cornelius Lentulus: The Story Of A Roman Boy [10]

LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CAESAR'S ARMY IN GAUL

[A] __________

[B] __________

Pūblius iam adulēscēns, postquam togam virīlem sūmpsit, aliīs rēbus studēre incēpit et praesertim ūsū armōrum sē dīligenter exercuit. Magis magisque amāvit illās artēs quae mīlitārem animum dēlectant. Iamque erant quī eī cursum mīlitārem praedīcerent. Nec sine causā, quod certē patris īnsigne exemplum ita multum trahēbat.

[C] __________

[D] __________

Paucīs ante annīs C. Iūlius Caesar, ducum Rōmānōrum maximus, cōnsul creātus erat et hōc tempore in Galliā bellum grave gerēbat. Atque in exercitū eius plūrēs adulēscentēs mīlitābant, apud quōs erat amīcus quīdam Pūblī. Ille Pūblium crēbrīs litterīs vehementer hortābātur ut iter in Galliam faceret. Neque Pūblius rēcūsāvit, et, multīs amīcīs ad portam urbis prōsequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est.

[E] __________

[F] __________

Quārtō diē postquam iter ingressus est, ad Alpēs, montēs altissimōs, pervēnit. Hīs summā difficultāte superātīs, tandem Gallōrum in fīnibus erat. Prīmō autem veritus est ut castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquāre posset, quod Gallī, maximīs cōpiīs coāctīs, Rōmānōs obsidēbant et viās omnēs iam clauserant. Quamvīs per hostium cōpiās iter faceret, Pūblius vestem Gallicam induit nē ā Gallīs caperētur; ita incolumis ad castra pervenīre potuit. Intrā mūnītiōnēs acceptus, ā Caesare benignē exceptus est. Imperātor fortem adulēscentem amplissimīs verbīs laudāvit et eum tribūnum mīlitum creāvit.

Question [1] comprehension

Which of the following titles are appropriate for each paragraph? There are two titles for each of them.

dangerous journey through enemy territory

early training and growing interest in military life

invitation to join Caesar’s campaign in Gaul

successful arrival and reward in the Roman camp

the rise of Julius Caesar as Rome’s greatest general

young man influenced by his father’s reputation

Question [2] language; clause types and descriptors

Look at the following clauses from the text. At this higher level, you may well be using grammar books that identify these clauses by name. Match the clauses with their names and descriptors [A] – [H] below:

[i] plūrēs adulēscentēs mīlitābant ¦ apud quōs erat amīcus quīdam Pūblī _____

[ii] erant ¦ quī eī cursum mīlitārem praedīcerent _____

[iii] postquam togam virīlem sūmpsit _____

[iv] quod certē patris īnsigne exemplum ita multum trahēbat _____

[v] vestem Gallicam induit ¦ nē ā Gallīs caperētur _____

[vi] hortābātur ¦ ut iter in Galliam faceret _____

[vii] veritus est ¦ ut castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquāre posset _____

[viii] Quamvīs per hostium cōpiās iter faceret, … _____

[A] subordinate clause of fear (+ subjunctive)

• Used after verbs of fearing; nē expresses fear that something may happen, ut expresses fear that something may not happen.

[B] indirect command (+ subjunctive)

• Reports an order, request, encouragement, or instruction indirectly.

[C] concessive clause (+ subjunctive)

• Expresses a contrast, usually translated as “although …”; the main action happens despite this fact.

[D] subordinate clause of cause / reason

• Explains why the action in the main clause happens.

[E] relative / adjectival clause

• Refers to / describes a specific, identifiable person or thing mentioned in the main clause.

[F] relative clause of characteristic (+ subjunctive)

• Describes the type or kind of person or thing, not a specific individual; often a general or non-specific group.

[G] subordinate clause of negative purpose (+ nē + subjunctive)

• Explains the aim or intention behind the action in the main clause; here, the purpose is negative i.e. the goal it is intended not to bring about.

[H] subordinate clause of time (temporal clause)

• States when the action of the main clause takes place.

____________________

Notes on the subjunctive

[1] Subjunctive: characteristic; does not describe a specific person but makes a generalised comment on the ‘type of person’

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20characteristic

Iamque erant quī eī cursum mīlitārem praedīcerent

• And there were already people who predicted a military career for him

[2] Subjunctive: indirect command

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20indirect%20commands

Ille Pūblium … vehementer hortābātur ut iter in Galliam faceret

• He was strongly urging Publius … to make a journey into Gaul

[3] Subjunctive: purpose (negative)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20purpose

Pūblius vestem Gallicam induit nē ā Gallīs caperētur

• Publius put on Gallic clothing so that he would not be captured by the Gauls

[4] Subjunctive: fear

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20verbs%20of%20fearing

Prīmō autem veritus est ut castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquāre posset

• At first, however, he feared that he might not be able to approach the Roman camp

[5] Subjunctive: concessive; ‘although’

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20concessive%20clauses

Quamvīs per hostium cōpiās iter faceret, …

• Although he was making his way through the enemy forces, …

____________________

Question [1] comprehension

[A] Early training and growing interest in military life

[B] A young man influenced by his father’s reputation

[C] An invitation to join Caesar’s campaign in Gaul

[D] The rise of Julius Caesar as Rome’s greatest general

[E] A dangerous journey through enemy territory

[F] Successful arrival and reward in the Roman camp

Question [2] language

[i] E; [ii] F; [iii] H; [iv] D; [v] G; [vi] B; [vii] A; [viii] C

10.05.26: Vincent and the snakes in the grass

Referring to:

https://www.facebook.com/reel/1557269026025911

Salvēte sodālēs. | Greetings, companions / friends.

Ut valētis? | How are you (all)?

Vidēsne hanc bēstiam? | Do you see this beast / creature?

Anguis venēnātus est. | It is a venomous snake.

Anglicē ‘copperhead’ appellātur. | In English, it is called a “copperhead.”

Eius modī anguēs saepe videō in silvā natiōnālī Sam Houston … | I often see snakes of this kind in the Sam Houston National Forest …

… quae ad septentriōnēs Hustōniae sita est. | … which is located to the north of Houston.

Itaque, noctū, semper mihi cavendum est … | Therefore, at night, I must always be careful …

… et lūmine ūtendum … | … and use a light / flashlight …

… nōn quod tenebrās timeam … | … not because I fear the darkness …

… sed quia eōs calcāre nōlim. | … but because I do not want / I would not wish to step on them.

____________________

[1] anguis, -is [3 m/f]: snake; serpent

latet anguis in herbā (Virgil) | a snake is hiding in the grass, from which is derived the phrase we use to describe a large number of politicians - and Virgil knew about them in 37 BC

also: serpēns, serpentis [3 m/f]: snake; serpent

[2] venēnum, -ī [2/n]: poison

venēnō, -āre [1]: to poison

venēnātus, -a, -um: poisoned i.e. if it has happened to you; poisonous i.e. if it contains poison

These are handy words to know since it was a Roman method of getting rid of ‘snakes in the grass’.

[3] tenebrae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: darkness; in Latin, the noun is plural

There are a few more advanced points of language in Vincent’s video.

[4] mihi … cavendum est … ūtendum …; this seems an odd construction to us since there is no exact equivalent; we’ll use a more straightforward example:

legō, -ere [3]: read > legendus, -a, -um: it literally means ‘which is to be read’. In grammar it is known as a gerundive of obligation i.e. it expresses what needs to be / has to be / ought to be etc. done.

hic liber legendus est: this book is to be / needs to be / ought to be read

If who needs to do it is referred to, that is in the dative:

Hic liber (1) tibi (2) legendus est | literally: this book is (1) for you (2) to be read = you need to read this book

In the expressions used by Vincent, they are impersonal i.e. they do not agree with any noun and use the neuter form

Mihi cavendum est … et … ūtendum | literally: it is for me to be guarded against … and to be used = I need to be careful … and (to) use

[5]

(1) … nōn quod tenebrās timeam … | … not because I fear the darkness …

(2) … sed quia eōs calcāre nōlim. | … but because I do not want to step on them.

In both of these expressions, Vincent uses the subjunctive forms of the verb.

(1) quod: because – is not usually followed by the subjunctive, but can be when a reason is reported i.e. what somebody else said:

[a] Dormīre nōn poterat quod ānxius erat (indicative)

[b] Dormīre nōn poterat quod ānxius esset (subjunctive)

Both mean: He could not sleep because he was worried.

However, [a] presents it as factual whereas [b] implies that, for example, this was something the writer was told. One way English could convey [b] would be: He couldn’t sleep because, he said, he was worried.

… nōn quod tenebrās timeam … | … not because I (might) fear the darkness … (i.e. in case you’re thinking that)

23.08.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [90] dependent uses [15] reported / indirect reason: quod and quia

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/03/230826-level-3-subjunctive-90-dependent.html

(2) Nōlim expresses a negative wish i.e. I would not want; just because you would not want something to happen does not mean that it won’t, which is an underlying meaning of the subjunctive.

However, for Vincent’s sake, let’s hope he doesn’t stand on them!

The other subjunctive verb that commonly illustrates this idea is velim = I would like. Maybe you would like to become a millionaire but there's no guarantee that you will!

German ich möchte and Spanish quisiera mean ‘I would like’ – and both are subjunctive.

23.06.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [58] dependent uses [4] verbs of wishing (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/02/230626-level-3-subjunctive-58-dependent.html

[6] One final point …

Listen carefully to Vincent’s pronunciation of: mihi cavendum est; he doesn’t talk like Cicero, but like a character in a Plautus play which, at ‘street level’, was more akin to how your average Roman spoke. Moreover, in the plays, such pronunciation is actually conveyed in writing.

What you hear is mī [ = mihi] cavendumst i.e. the /m/ (most likely nasalised) of -um + the /e/ of est are combined into one sound.