30.11.26: Level 4; literature; Vulgate [1]: Jesus before Pilate; Luke 23.1-7

The Vulgate – in terms of learning the language – is a fabulous “bridge” towards Classical Latin literature. The trial before Pilate uses a whole range of structures that have been discussed previously. The translation is my own and stays as close as possible to the original Latin in order to reflect the usage. Only more advanced language is highlighted together with occasional notes on other points.

The description of the trial moves rapidly and grows in intensity, Pilate caught between upholding Roman Law and the threat of local insurrection but submitting in the end to the will of both the “crowd” and religious officials motivated by self-interest and fear that the influence of Jesus is spreading. It is not simply Jesus who is on trial here, but human nature – and it is guilty as charged.

Luke 23.1-7

(1) Et surgēns omnis multitūdō eōrum, dūxērunt illum ad Pīlātum.

• And, getting up, the whole crowd of them led him to Pilate.

(2) Coepērunt autem illum accūsāre, dīcentēs: Hunc invēnīmus subvertentem gentem nostram, et prohibentem tribūta dare Caesarī, et dīcentem ¦ sē Chrīstum rēgem esse.

• And they started to accuse him, saying, “We found this man perverting our nation, and forbidding (us) to give tribute to Caesar, and saying ¦ that he is Christ, a king.”

(3) Pīlātus autem interrogāvit eum, dīcēns: Tū es rēx Iūdaeōrum? At ille respondēns ait: Tū dīcis.

• And Pilate questioned him, saying: “You are the king of the Jews?” But, replying, he said: “You say that.”

(4) Ait autem Pīlātus ad prīncipēs sacerdōtum et turbās: Nihil inveniō causae in hōc homine.

• And Pilate said to the chief priests and the crowds, “I find no reason to accuse this man [literally: nothing of cause in this man, i.e. no grounds to charge]”

(5) At illī invalēscēbant, ¦ dīcentēs: Commovet populum docēns per ūniversam Iūdaeam, incipiēns ā Galilaeā usque hūc.

• But they kept pressing harder, ¦ saying: “He stirs up the people, teaching throughout all Judea, starting from Galilee all the way to here.”

(6) Pīlātus autem audiēns Galilaeam, interrogāvit ¦ sī homō Galilaeus esset.

• But Pilate, hearing (the mention of) Galilee, asked ¦ whether the man was a Galilean.

(7) Et ut cognōvit ¦ quod dē Hērōdis potestāte esset, ¦ remīsit eum ad Hērōdem, quī et ipse Hierosolymīs erat illīs diēbus.

• And when he learned ¦ that he was of Herod’s authority [ = under Herod’s jurisdiction], ¦ he sent him back to Herod, who himself was also at Jerusalem in those days.

Notes:

[i] Frequent use of present active participles, for example:

• Pīlātus autem audiēns Galilaeam …
• Hunc invēnīmus subvertentem …
• Coepērunt autem illum accūsāre, dīcentēs …

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/present%20active%20participle

[ii] Tū dīcis: short and to the point, the use of tū explicitly contrasting what Pilate says with what Jesus has not said.

You say that; It’s you who says that; You’re the one who says that (but I haven’t); any claim to being a king would be viewed as a direct challenge to the authority of Rome and punishable by execution. It is an allegation that Jesus outrightly rejects.

[iii] indirect statement

… et dīcentem ¦ sē Chrīstum rēgem esse

Literally … and saying [literally] himself to be …

> … and saying ¦ that he is …

(a) In Classical Latin, indirect statement is normally expressed by the accusative-infinitive:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/10/201225-level-3-indirect-statement.html

Note the use of sē since Jesus is allegedly referring to himself.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/10/261225-level-3-indirect-statement.html

all posts: https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/indirect%20statement

(b) However, in Late Latin and especially in Biblical Latin, quod / quia + the subjunctive increasingly replace the classical accusative–infinitive in indirect statement.

Et ut cognōvit ¦ quod dē Hērōdis potestāte esset [CL: Et ut cognōvit eum dē Hērōdis potestāte esse]

• And when he learned ¦ that he was …

[iv] At illī invalēscēbant …

inchoative verb marked with the distinctive -sc- indicating the beginning of an action or an action that increases

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/inchoative%20verbs

invaleō, -ēre [2]: grow strong

invalescō, -ere [3]: grow stronger; increase in strength

i.e. there is an atmosphere of growing intensity; they became increasingly persistent

[v] interrogāvit ¦ sī homō Galilaeus esset: asked ¦ if / whether the man was a Galilean

In CL, sī normally introduces a conditional clause.

An indirect question i.e. ‘if’ in the sense of ‘whether (or not)’ is normally not introduced by sī, but there are occasional examples:

Vīsam ¦ sī domī est (Terence) 

I will go see ¦ if he is at home.

• This usage becomes common only in post-Classical / Late Latin.

[vi] ipse, ipsa, ipsum

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/08/111125-level-3-review-ipse-ipsa-ipsum.html

29.11.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXX [4] participial constructions

THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

Illīs in castrīs erant duo centuriōnēs, fortissimī virī, T. Pullō et L. Vorēnus, quōrum neuter alterī virtūte cēdere volēbat. Inter eōs iam multōs annōs īnfēnsum certāmen gerēbātur. Tum dēmum fīnis contrōversiae hōc modō factus est. Diē tertiō postquam Pūblius pervēnit, hostēs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, ācerrimum impetum in castra fēcērunt. Tum Pullō, cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs vidērentur, “Cūr dubitās,” inquit, “Vorēne? Quam commodiōrem occāsiōnem exspectās? Hic diēs dē virtūte nostrā iūdicābit.” Haec cum dīxisset, extrā mūnītiōnēs prōcessit et in eam hostium partem quae cōfertissima vidēbātur inrūpit. Neque Vorēnus quidem tum vāllō sēsē continet, sed Pullōnem subsequitur. Tum Pullō pīlum in hostīs immittit atque ūnum ex multitūdine prōcurrentem trāicit. Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostēs scūtīs prōtegunt et in Pullōnem omnēs tēla coniciunt. Eius scūtum trānsfīgitur et tēlum in balteō dēfīgitur. Hic cāsus vāgīnam āvertit et dextram manum eius gladium ēdūcere cōnantis morātur. Eum ita impedītum hostēs circumsistunt.

Tum vēro eī labōrantī Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cōnfestim ā Pullōne omnis multitūdō sē convertit. Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorēnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit. Sed īnstāns cupidius īnfēlīx, pede sē fallente, concidit.

Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō, atque ambō incolumēs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnēs sē recipiunt. Sic inimīcōrum alter alterī auxilium dedit nec dē eōrum virtūte quisquam iūdicāre potuit.

review: participial constructions

Participial constructions are very common in Classical Latin literature. English may be able to translate them literally but, most often, they require some type of subordinate clause.

[i] present active participle

īnstāns cupidius īnfēlīx | the unfortunate man (who is) pressing forward too eagerly

ūnum [acc.] ex multitūdine prōcurrentem [acc.] trāicit | pierces one man (who is) rushing forward from the crowd

dextram manum eius [gen.] gladium ēdūcere cōnantis [gen.] morātur.

(it) hinders the right hand of him / of the man (who is) attempting to draw his sword = (it) hinders his right hand, while he is trying to draw his sword

eī [dat.] labōrantī [dat.] Vorēnus … auxilium dat | Vorenus gives help to him while he is struggling

[ii] perfect passive participle

Eum ita impedītum hostēs circumsistunt. | The enemy surround him (who has been) hindered in this way.

Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostēs scūtīs prōtegunt | With their shields the enemy protect this man (who has been) struck and killed

Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō | Pullo again gives help to him when he has been surrounded

[iii] ablative absolute

Remember the basic formula of the two parts of an ablative absolute construction:

(1) with present active participle = with X ¦ Y-ing

Pede [ablative] ¦ sē fallente [ablative] | literally: with (his) foot ¦ deceiving itself

While it sounds clumsy in style, it is correct. Most often, however, the translation will use ‘when’, ‘since’ or ‘after’ depending on the context. In this case:

pede sē fallente | his foot slipping / since his foot slips / when his foot slips …

(2) with perfect passive participle = with X ¦ having been Y-ed

… ūnō ¦ interfectō… | with one (man) ¦ having been killed > after one man had been killed …

Be careful with the translation since the ablative absolute does not in itself indicate who performed the action:

Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorēnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit.

Vorenus fights hand-to-hand with his sword, and, with one (man) having been killed, drives back the rest a little.

In this context, since Vorenus is fighting hand-to-hand, it is obviously Vorenus who is being referred to. Therefore, it would be possible to translate the ablative absolute as:

…and having killed one man / after he killed one man, …

Likewise:

maiōribus cōpiīs ¦ coāctīs | with larger forces ¦ having been assembled > after larger forces had been …

hostēs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, … impetum … fēcērunt.

The enemy, after larger forces had been assembled,  … made an attack.

Again, here, it is obvious that it was the enemy who had gathered the forces. Therefore, the following translations are possible:

After the enemy had assembled larger forces, they made an attack.

Having assembled larger forces, the enemy made an attack.

Compare:

plūribus ¦ interfectīs | with many ¦ having been killed > after many had been killed …

atque ambō incolumēs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnēs sē recipiunt.

And with the highest praise both return unharmed within the fortifications, after many had been killed

It is not implied that both of them killed many men; the ablative absolute simply describes the circumstances under which they return. To translate the ablative absolute as: “After they had killed …” or “Having killed …” would be an assumption that is not conveyed.

If in doubt, keep the impersonal and passive nature of the ablative absolute i.e. do not refer to a subject. In the translation of the entire text below, all the ablative absolutes have been expressed in that way.

____________________

In that camp there were two centurions, very brave men, Titus Pullo and Lucius Vorenus, neither of whom was willing to yield to the other in courage. Between them there had been for many years a hostile rivalry. At last the end of the dispute was brought about in the following way.

On the third day after Publius arrived, the enemy, after larger forces had been gathered, made a very fierce attack on the camp.

Then Pullo, when the Romans seemed to be too slow, said: “Why do you hesitate, Vorenus? What more favourable opportunity are you waiting for? This day will judge our courage.” When he had said this, he advanced beyond the fortifications and burst into that part of the enemy which seemed most densely packed.

Nor did Vorenus at that time keep himself within the rampart but follows Pullo.

Then Pullo hurls his javelin at the enemy and pierces one man rushing forward from the crowd. With their shields the enemy protect this man, who has been struck and killed, and they throw all their weapons at Pullo.

His shield is pierced through and a spear is driven into his belt. This accident turns aside / dislodges his scabbard and hinders his right hand, while he is trying to draw his sword. The enemy surround him who has been impeded in this way.

Then indeed Vorenus, although he is his enemy, nevertheless gives assistance, to him while he is struggling.

At once all the crowd turns from Pullo to him. Vorenus fights hand-to-hand with his sword, and, one man having been killed, drives back the rest a little.

But the unfortunate man, pressing forward too eagerly, his foot slipping, falls.

To him again, when surrounded, Pullo gives aid, and both return within the fortifications unharmed, after many had been killed, with the highest praise.

Thus each of the enemies gave help to the other, and no one could judge between their courage.

29.11.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXX [3] subjunctive

THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

Illīs in castrīs erant duo centuriōnēs, fortissimī virī, T. Pullō et L. Vorēnus, quōrum neuter alterī virtūte cēdere volēbat. Inter eōs iam multōs annōs īnfēnsum certāmen gerēbātur. Tum dēmum fīnis contrōversiae hōc modō factus est. Diē tertiō postquam Pūblius pervēnit, hostēs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, ācerrimum impetum in castra fēcērunt. Tum Pullō, cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs vidērentur, “Cūr dubitās,” inquit, “Vorēne? Quam commodiōrem occāsiōnem exspectās? Hic diēs dē virtūte nostrā iūdicābit.” Haec cum dīxisset, extrā mūnītiōnēs prōcessit et in eam hostium partem quae cōfertissima vidēbātur inrūpit. Neque Vorēnus quidem tum vāllō sēsē continet, sed Pullōnem subsequitur. Tum Pullō pīlum in hostīs immittit atque ūnum ex multitūdine prōcurrentem trāicit. Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostēs scūtīs prōtegunt et in Pullōnem omnēs tēla coniciunt. Eius scūtum trānsfīgitur et tēlum in balteō dēfīgitur. Hic cāsus vāgīnam āvertit et dextram manum eius gladium ēdūcere cōnantis morātur. Eum ita impedītum hostēs circumsistunt.

Tum vēro eī labōrantī Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cōnfestim ā Pullōne omnis multitūdō sē convertit. Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorēnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit. Sed īnstāns cupidius īnfēlīx, pede sē fallente, concidit.

Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō, atque ambō incolumēs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnēs sē recipiunt. Sic inimīcōrum alter alterī auxilium dedit nec dē eōrum virtūte quisquam iūdicāre potuit.

review: subjunctive usage

cum-clauses:

[i] circumstance

cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs vidērentur, … | when / since the Romans seemed to be too slow

Haec cum dīxisset, … | When he had said this (these things) …

[ii] concessive (‘although’); look out for cum … tamen (nevertheless); tamen is often included to indicate this clause type:

Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat | Vorenus, although he is his enemy, nevertheless gives assistance

28.11.26: Comenius (1658) LXXV; the Bath [3] vocabulary (2)

[vi]

Balneātor scarificat scalprō & applicandō cucurbitās extrahit sanguinem subcutāneum, quem abstergit spongiā.

The bath-keeper lances with a lancet and by applying cupping-glasses he draws the blood between the skin and the flesh, which he wipes away with a sponge.

[i] image #1: cucurbita, -ae [1/f]: [i] gourd, squash, (Neo-Latin) pumpkin; [ii] cupping-glass, used in the operation of drawing blood; the term conveys the shape of the glass

[ii] scalprum, -ī [2/n]: lancet; knife > (diminutive) scalpellum, -ī [2/n]: a small surgical knife > Engl. scalpel

image #2: bronze lancet found at Ephesus (Science Museum, UK)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/100625-blunt-razors-blood-letting-and_6.html

Bloodletting and lancing were normally associated with barber-surgeons who, alongside cutting hair and shaving, would perform minor surgery, for example tooth extraction and the treatment of wounds. Here, Comenius refers to the practice being carried out by bath attendants.

The same medical practices took place in Ancient Rome although whether minor surgical procedures were performed at the actual location of the baths is less certain. However, the medicinal benefits of bathing are referred to by, for example, Celsus.

Images #3 and #4: bloodletting in Ancient Greece and the Middle Ages

28.11.26: Comenius (1658) LXXV; the Bath [2] vocabulary (1)

[i] -tor (masculine); -trīx (feminine)

Used to form agent nouns i.e. the person who performs the action contained in the root, usually a verb but, also from nouns i.e. balneum, -ī [2/n]: bath

balneum + -tor > balneātor, -ōris [3/m]: bath attendant (male)

balneum + -trīx > balneātrīx, -īcis [3/f]: bath attendant (female)

piscātor, -ōris [3/m]: fisherman; piscātrīx, piscātrīcis [3/f]: fisherwoman

āctor,-ōris [3/m]: actor; āctrīx, -īcis [3/f]: actress

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/300324-third-declension-5-more-ways-of.html

[Notes (5) and (6)]

[ii]

balneārium, -ī [2/n]: bathing-house

-ārium: the suffix is primarily used to denote either the purpose of a place or a place where things are kept:

liber (book) + -ārium > librārium, -ī [2/n]: bookcase; library

arma (weapons; tools) + -ārium > armārium, -ī [2/n]: cupboard

[iii]

apodytērium, -ī [2/n]: dressing-room, undressing room, the term used in Classical Latin for that section of the Roman bath house

sūdātōrium, -ī [2/n]: hot-air bath, sweating room; this is a rare word in CL although it is referred to by Seneca. The words used in Ancient Rome referring to the parts of a bath house are:

[1] caldārium, -ī [2/n]: from caldus, -a, -um, the caldarium was a room with hot water supplied, and with a hypocaust, an underfloor heating system.

[2] tepidārium, -ī [2/n]: From tepidus, -a, -um, this was the warm bathroom between the hot caldarium and the cold frigidarium with a lukewarm bath of water (labrum) lessening the shock of moving from one extreme temperature to the other.

[3] frīgidārium, -ī [2/n]: from frīgidus, -a, -um, the frigidarium contained a large pool of cold water for cooling off after the heat of the caldarium and tepidarium.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/190424-bath-time.html

[iv]

alveus, -ī [2/m]: in the text, the word simply refers to a water trough; various additional meanings including any deep vessel, the hold of a ship and a riverbed. The term was also used in a derogatory way since it could refer to a trough for feeding pigs:

Etiam in alveō circumlāta sunt oxycomina, unde quīdam etiam improbē ternōs pugnōs sustulērunt (Petronius)

Pickled olives were also brought round in a dish, from where some voraciously took three fistfuls.

The author’s choice of alveus to describe the dish, combined with the guests’ greedy grabbing, implies that their behaviour is no different from that of pigs. Indeed, the English verb trough defines eating in a vulgar manner.

canālis, -is [3/m]: pipe, channel

image #1: water pipe, Pompeii

labrum, -ī [2/n]: tub, basin

image #2: labrum in the caldarium of the main forum baths at Pompeii

situla, -ae [1/f]: bucket

image #3: Giberville bucket

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giberville_bucket

pelluvium [2/n] / pelluvia, -ae [1/f]: basin, footbath; both nouns are extremely rare

image #4: malluvium, -ī [2/n]: (Mediaeval) wash-hand basin

image #5: footbath (Greek; late 5th–early 4th century BCE, Metropolitan Museum)

image #6: engraving (1890) of a relief sculpture of a young Roman wife covering her face with a flammeum which is an orange bridal veil while another woman washes her feet.

[v]

castula, -ae [1/f]: apron, loincloth; in CL it referred specifically to a type of petticoat worn by women

cilicium, -ī [2/n]: hair-cloth; the term originally refers to a rough garment made of goat hair

pīleolus, -ī [2/m] / pilleolus, -ī [2/m]: little cap; -ol- marks the diminutive form of pīleus / pilleus, a felt cap

pūmex, pūmicis [3/m]: pumice-stone

27.11.26: Level 1-2 (review): Julia (a Latin Reader) [5] (2)

RŌMULUS ET SABĪNAE (2)

Sabīnī lūdōs Rōmānōrum spectāvērunt. In mediīs lūdīs Rōmānī magnā vōce subitō clāmāvērunt, et ecce! virginēs Sabīnās raptāverant et ad casās portāvērunt.

Frūstrā mātrēs lacrimāvērunt, frūstrā virōs in arma incitāvērunt. Rōmānī scūta et gladiōs et hastās habēbant; Sabīnīs nec scūta nec gladiī nec hastae fuērunt.

Maestī igitur et īrātī Sabīnī ad terram Sabīnam properāvērunt. Per tōtam hiemem ibi manēbant et arma dīligenter parābant. Via est longa inter Rōmam et terram Sabīnam. Sed tandem Sabīnī, iam armātī, ante portās urbis Rōmae stābant. "Ō Rōmānī," inquiunt, "prō fīliābus nostrīs, prō sorōribus nostrīs fortiter pugnābimus."

Deinde Sabīnae ē cāsīs Rōmānōrum passīs capillīs ēvolāvērunt; parvulōs portāvērunt et patribus frātribusque mōnstrāvērunt. Patrēs frātrēsque suōs multīs lacrimīs ōrāvērunt. "Nunc," inquiunt, "in casīs Rōmānīs laetae et placidae habitāmus; līberōs cārōs habēmus et vehementer amāmus; et Sabīnōs et Rōmānōs amāmus."

"Sī Rōmānī cum Sabīnīs pugnābunt, Rōmānī Sabīnōs, Sabīnī Rōmānōs necābunt. Tum Sabīnae nec virōs nec patrēs nec frātrēs habēbunt. Ō patrēs, valēte! Nōn iam Sabīnae sed Rōmānae semper erimus fīliae vestrae."

scūtum, -ī [2/n]: shield

māter, mātris [3/f]: mother

vox, vocis [3/f]: voice

medius, -a, -um: middle

clāmō, clāmāre [1]: shout

____________________

The Sabines watched the games of the Romans. In the middle of the games the Romans suddenly shouted with a loud voice, and look! they had seized the Sabine maidens and carried them off to their homes.

In vain the mothers wept, in vain they urged the men to arms. The Romans had shields and swords and spears; the Sabines had neither shields nor swords nor spears.

And so the Sabines, sorrowful and angry, hurried to the land of the Sabines. Throughout the whole winter they stayed there and carefully prepared arms. The road is long between Rome and the land of the Sabines. But at last the Sabines, now armed, stood before the gates of the city of Rome. “O Romans,” they say, “for our daughters, for our sisters, we shall fight bravely.”

Then the Sabine women rushed out of the houses of the Romans with hair unbound; they carried their little children and showed them to their fathers and brothers. They begged their fathers and brothers with many tears. “Now,” they say, “we live happily and peacefully in the homes of the Romans; we have dear children and love them deeply; and we love both the Sabines and the Romans.

If the Romans fight with the Sabines, the Romans will kill the Sabines, and the Sabines will kill the Romans. Then the Sabine women will have neither husbands nor fathers nor brothers. O fathers, farewell! We shall now no longer be Sabine women but Roman women, always your daughters.”