17.10.26: Level 3+; P. Cornelius Lentulus: The Story Of A Roman Boy [1]

LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPEII

P. Cornēlius Lentulus, adulēscēns Rōmānus, amplissimā familiā nātus est; nam pater eius, Mārcus, erat dux perītissimus, cuius virtūte et cōnsiliō multae victōriae reportātae erant; atque māter eius, Iūlia, ā clārissimīs maiōribus orta est. Nōn vērō in urbe sed rūrī Pūblius natus est, et cum mātre habitābat in villā quae in maris lītore et sub rādīcibus magnī montis sita erat. Mōns autem erat Vesuvius et parva urbs Pompēiī octo milia passuum aberat.

In Italiā antīquā erant plūrimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter hās omnīs nūlla erat pulchrior quam villa Mārcī Iūliaeque. Frōns villae mūrō ā maris fluctibus mūniēbātur. Hinc mare et litora et insulae longē lātēque cōnspicī ac saepe nāvēs longae et onerāriae poterant. Ā tergō et ab utrōque latere agrī ferācissimi patēbant. Undique erat magna variōrum flōrum cōpia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestāte umbram dēfessis agricolīs grātissimam adferēbant. Praetereā erant in agrīs stabulīsque multa animālium genera, nōn sōlum equī et bovēs sed etiam rārae avēs. Etiam erat magna piscīna plēna piscium; nam Rōmānī piscēs dīligenter colēbant.

Note: for all the sections of the Lentulus text (there are 10 in total), the questions invite longer and more detailed answers. Remember: at this level, it is not about translation, but giving the answers in as concise a manner as possible; rephrasing, summarising etc. are the aims provided the meaning is not altered. Question 4 is not looking for one-word answers i.e. it is not merely about identifying nouns, but noting phrases that give an added piece of information to that noun.

Question [1]: What does the passage reveal about Publius Cornelius Lentulus’s family background, and how does the author use his parents’ achievements and ancestry to establish social status and prestige? (8 marks)

Question [2]: How does the passage describe the place where Publius was born and lived, and how is this location defined in relation to both natural features and nearby settlements? (8 marks)

Question [3]: “In Italiā … poterant.” Describe the villa and its location. (10 marks)

Question [4] “Ā tergō … colēbant.” What information is given that shows that the villa is in an agricultural setting? (8 marks)

____________________

Question [1]

Publius: born into a very distinguished family │ amplissimā familiā nātus est (1)

father: very experienced (1) military commander (1) │ pater eius (1) dux perītissimus (1)

father: credited with many victories (1) through courage (1) and judgment (1) │ cuius virtūte (1) ¦ et cōnsiliō (1) ¦ multae victōriae reportātae erant (1)

mother:  descended from (1) very famous ancestors (1) │  (māter eius … ā clārissimīs maiōribus (1) ¦ orta est (1)

Question [2]

not born in the city │  nōn vērō in urbe … nātus est (1)

born in the countryside │ sed rūrī (1)

lived with his mother │ cum mātre habitābat (1)

lived in a villa (1) on the seashore (1) at the foot of (1) Mount Vesuvius (1) │ in villā (1) ¦ quae in maris lītore (1) ¦ et sub rādīcibus magnī montis sita erat … (1)  ¦ mōns autem erat Vesuvius (1)

Pompeii eight miles away │ parva urbs Pompēiī octo mīlia passuum aberat (1)

Question [3]

No villa more beautiful │ nūlla erat pulchrior quam villa Mārcī Iūliaeque (1)

Front of the villa (1) fortified (1) from the sea / waves (1) by a wall (1) │ Frōns villae (1) ¦ mūrō (1) ¦ ā maris fluctibus (1) mūniēbātur (1)

Extensive views (1) from the villa (1) of the sea, shores and islands (1) │ Hinc (1) mare et litora et insulae (1) longē lātēque cōnspicī (1)

as well as warships (1) and merchant ships (1) │ ac saepe nāvēs longae (1) et onerāriae (1) poterant

Question [4]

References to:

very fertile fields

large amount of flowers

many species of huge trees

tired farmers

many species of animals (horses, oxen) in fields and stables

rare birds

fish ponds

cultivating fish

Ā tergō et ab utrōque latere agrī ferācissimi (1) patēbant. Undique erat magna variōrum flōrum cōpia (1) et multa ingentium arborum genera (1) quae aestāte umbram dēfessis agricolīs (1) grātissimam adferēbant. Praetereā erant in agrīs stabulīsque multa animālium genera (1), nōn sōlum equī et bovēs sed etiam rārae avēs (1). Etiam erat magna piscīna plēna piscium (1); nam Rōmānī piscēs dīligenter colēbant (1).

16.10.26: Level 3 / 3+ (Review); Hillard & Botting [74] Labours of Hercules (8)

In hortō quōdam haud procul ā Monte Atlante trēs erant sorōrēs pulcherrimae, Hesperidēs nōmine: hae ūnā cum ingentī dracōne aurea illa pōma custōdiēbant quae Iūnōnī, cum ā Iove in mātrimōnium dūcerētur, ā Terrā data erant. Haec pōma petere iussus Herculēs, cum situm hortī ignorāret, per multās terrās diū frūstrā errābat. Monitus autem ā Promētheō Atlantem, quī humerīs caelī onus sustinēbat, mīsit ut pōma invenīret: ipse interim onus sustinuit. Tum ad rēgem reportāvit pōma quae posteā, cum sibi ab eō data essent, Minervae dēdicāvit: haec autem in eundem hortum restituit. Ultimus labōrum etiam omnium difficillimus fuit: nam ā rege iussus est Cerberum canem ā Manibus ad terram suīs ipsīus viribus, sine armīs reportāre. Hoc mōnstrum, quod tria capita habēbat, vī superātum avexit, rēgī ostendit, tum ad Manēs redūxit.

[1] “In hortō … erant.”

In which order are the following first referred to?

a serpent  _____

a garden _____

a mountain _____

apples _____

the Earth goddess _____

marriage _____

three sisters _____

[2] … per multās terrās diū frūstrā errābat …

Why did this happen? (1)

[3] Translate: Monitus autem ā Promētheō Atlantem, quī humerīs caelī onus sustinēbat, mīsit ut pōma invenīret: ipse interim onus sustinuit. (6)

[4] “Tum ad rēgem … restituit.”

[4] Which of the following statements are true?

[A] The king dedicated the apples to Minerva.

[B] Minerva returned the apples to the same garden.

[C] Hercules was given the apples by the king.

[D] Minerva had given the apples to the king.

[E] Hercules returned the apples to the same garden.

[F] Hercules dedicated the apples to Minerva.

[5] Translate the phrases in bold precisely:

Ultimus labōrum etiam omnium difficillimus fuit:

[6] “nam ā rēge … redūxit.”

[i] What was Hercules ordered to do? (2)

[ii] What phrases emphasise the difficulty of this task? Quote the Latin and give translations. (2)

[iii] Which of the following statements is true? (2)

[A] Cerberus was shown to the king.

[B] Cerberus showed the Underworld to the king.

[C] Cerberus was kept by the king.

[D] Cerberus was returned to the Underworld.

Vocabulary

cādus, cādī [2/m]: cask 

iaciō, iacere, iēcī, iactus [3]: throw

odor, odōris [3/m]: smell 

rēte, rētis [3/n]: net 

venēnātus, -a, -um: poisoned 

vīnum, vīnī [2/n]: wine 

Notes: subjunctive

(1) imperfect subjunctive

cum situm hortī ignorāret, … ∣  since he did not know the location of the garden, …

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/01/070426-level-3-subjunctive-13-tenses-3.html

(2) passive subjunctive forms

[i] imperfect passive subjunctive

cum … in mātrimōnium dūcerētur, …  ∣  literally: when she was being led into marriage [= when she was getting married], …

[ii] pluperfect passive subjunctive

cum sibi ... data essent, …∣  since they had been given to him …,

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20passive%20%2F%20deponent

(3) purpose clauses

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20purpose

Atlantem … mīsit ut pōma invenīret: ∣ He sent Atlas to find [literally: in order that he might find] the apples:

____________________

[1]

a serpent [4]

a garden [1]

a mountain [2]

apples [5]

the Earth goddess [7]

marriage [6]

three sisters [3]

[2] he did not know the location of the garden

[3] However, having been advised by Prometheus, (1) he sent Atlas (1), who was supporting the weight of the sky (1) on his shoulders (1), to find the apples (1); he himself meanwhile held up the weight (1).

[4]

[B] Minerva returned the apples to the same garden.

[C] Hercules was given the apples by the king.

[F] Hercules dedicated the apples to Minerva.

[5] The last of the labours was also the most difficult of all:

[6]

[i] Bring Cerberus, a three-headed dog (1), from the Underworld to the Earth (1)

[ii] suīs ipsīus viribus; sine armīs (1) ∣⃒ by his very own strength; without weapons (1)

[iii]

[A] Cerberus was shown to the king.

[D] Cerberus was returned to the Underworld.

____________________

In a certain garden not far from Mount Atlas there were three very beautiful sisters, called the Hesperides; these, together with a huge serpent, were guarding those golden apples which had been given to Juno by Earth when she was being led into marriage by Jupiter.

Having been ordered to seek these apples, Hercules, since he did not know the location of the garden, wandered for a long time in vain through many lands. However, having been advised by Prometheus, he sent Atlas, who was supporting the weight of the sky on his shoulders, to find the apples; he himself meanwhile held up the weight. Then he brought the apples back to the king; later, when they had been given to him by the king, he dedicated them to Minerva; but she returned them to the same garden.

The last of his labours was also the most difficult of all: for, having been ordered by the king, he brought back Cerberus, the dog, from the Underworld to the earth by his own strength, without weapons. This monster, which had three heads, having been overcome by force, he carried off, showed to the king, and then led back to the Underworld.

15.10.26: topic: architecture [9]; The Roman House [4]; from the authors

[i] Occlude iānuam (Plautus)

• Bolt the door.

[ii] Sed quis hic est, quem astantem videō ante ōstium? (Plautus)

• But who is this I see standing in front of the door?

[iii] Pultābō forīs (Plautus); note the alternative accusative plural forīs or forēs

• I’ll knock at the door.

[iv] Exī ē culīnā sīs forās (Plautus)

• Get out of the kitchen, will you, outside.

[v] est etiam hīc ōstium aliud postīcum nostrārum hārunc* aedium (Plautus); *hārunc (early Latin) = hārum

• There is also here another back entrance of this house of ours.

[vi] Cūr nōn intrō eō in nostram domum? (Plautus)

• Or why don't I go inside our house?

[vii] Ubi tū cubuistī? / In eōdem lectō tēcum ūnā in cubiculō (Plautus)

• Where did you sleep? / In the same bed, together with you, in the bedroom.

[viii] Clōdī vestibulum vacuum sānē mihi nūntiābātur (Cicero)

• I have just had news that Clodius’ hall is utterly deserted.

[ix] Note Cicero’s use of triclinium to refer to the couch on which somebody dined rather than the location:

Exōrnat amplē magnificēque trīclīnium (Cicero)

He decorates a couch abundantly and magnificently.

[x] postquam in cūnās conditust, dēvolant anguēs iubātī deorsum impluvium duo maximī (Plautus)

•  After he was laid in the cradle, two immense crested serpents glided down in through the skylight; instantly they both reared their heads.

[xi] intrōdūcēs eōs in domum Dominī in ūnam exedram thēsaurōrum et dabis eīs bibere vīnum (Vulgate)

• Bring them into the house of Yahweh, into one side room, and give them wine to drink

[xii] aestāte apertīs cubiculī foribus ac saepe in peristȳliō … cubābat (Suetonius)

• In summer, he lay with the doors of his bedchamber open, and frequently in a piazza …

[xiii] Tablīnum locus proximus ātriō ā tabulīs appellātus (Diaconus)

• The tablinum, the place nearest to the atrium, is named from the tablets.

[xiv] Petrus autem sequēbātur eum ā longē usque in ātrium prīncipis sacerdōtum et ingressus intrō sedēbat cum ministrīs …  (Vulgate)

• But Peter followed him from a distance, to the court of the high priest, and having entered, he sat with the officers.

[xv] … duo signa pulcherrima … quae multōs annōs ante valvās Iūnōnis Samiae stetērunt (Cicero)

• … the two most beautiful statues … which stood for many years before the folding doors of the Samian Juno

[xvi] Inde ambulāvit in lītore. Post h. VIII in balneum (Cicero) 

• Then he walked on the shore. After the eighth hour he took his bath [ = (he went) into the bath house].

[xvii] Tam altī abdīcitque sēcrētī illa ratiō, quod interiacēns andrōn parietem cubiculī hortīque distinguit (Pliny)

• The reason for so deep and withdrawn a seclusion is that an intervening corridor separates the wall of the bedroom from the garden.

[xviii] "Apage tē" inquit "fētōrem extrēmae lātrīnae" (Apuleius)

• “Away with you!” he said, “you stench of the bottom of the latrine!”

[xix] coquī abstulērunt, comprehendite, vincite, verberāte, in puteum condite (Plautus)

•  "The cooks have stolen it! Collar 'em! Tie 'em up! Thrash 'em! Throw 'em in the dungeon!" 

[xx] The following quotation shows the original meaning of faucēs which, apart from referring to the narrow passageway at the entrance of a house, also means ‘throat’:

miserum est opus, igitur dēmum fodere puteum, ubi sītis faucēs tenet (Plautus)

• It is a wretched task: only then, indeed, to dig a well when thirst grips the throat.

[xxi] circāque in porticibus argentāriae tabernae maeniānaque superiōribus coaxātiōnibus conlocentur (Vitruvius)

• and the bankers' shops are to be situated in the surrounding porticos with apartments on the upper floors over them

coassātiō (coax-), -ōnis [3/f]: joining of boards together i.e. a boarded floor

porticus, -ūs [4/f]: colonnade; arcade

14.10.26: Level 1-2 (review): Julia (a Latin Reader) [1] (2)

Ad Iūliae casam pīrāta venit. Rubra est pīrātae tunica, splendidae sunt galea et hasta. Iūlia prope casae portam stat et pīrātam spectat; pīrātae hastam et galeam et tunicam rubram amat et laudat. Pīrāta quoque Iūliam et casam et rosās laudat. "Ō Iūlia," inquit, "pulchra es puella et pulchrae sunt rosae tuae. Nāvicula mea pulchra est. Alta est prōra nāviculae meae. In extrēmā nāviculā stō et nāviculam gubernō. Alba est nāvicula mea; nunc prope ōram maritimam stat."

Tum Iūlia cum pīrātā ad ōram maritimam ambulat et nāviculam albam spectat. Iūlia et pīrāta prōram nāviculae multīs rosīs ōrnant. Subitō pīrāta puellam in nāviculam iactat. Multae sunt lacrimae puellae, sed frūstrā--pīrāta in extrēmā nāviculā stat et nāviculam gubernat.

[1]

galea, -ae [1/f]: helmet

hasta, -ae [1/f]: spear

lacrima, -ae [1/f]: tear

nāvicula, -ae [1/f]: small ship, boat

pīrāta, -ae [1/m]: pirate

porta, -ae [1/f]: gate

prōra, -ae [1/f]: prow

tunica, -ae [1/f]: tunic

[2]

altus, -a, -um: high, deep

extrēmus, -a, -um: outermost, end

splendidus, -a, -um: bright, splendid

[3]

gubernō, gubernāre [1]: steer

iactō, iactāre [1]: throw

ōrnō, ōrnāre [1]: adorn

stō, stāre [1]: stand

veniō, venīre [4]: come

inquit [irregular]: (s)he says

[4]

in (+ abl.): in, on

frūstrā: in vain

nunc: now

subitō: suddenly

____________________

A pirate comes to Julia’s cottage. The pirate’s tunic is red; his helmet and spear are splendid. Julia stands near the cottage door and looks at the pirate; she loves and praises the pirate’s spear, helmet, and red tunic. The pirate also praises Julia, her cottage, and her roses.

O Julia, he says, you are a beautiful girl and your roses are beautiful. My little ship is beautiful. The prow of my ship is high. I stand at the end of the ship and steer it. My ship is white; now it lies near the seashore.

Then Julia walks with the pirate to the seashore and looks at the white ship. Julia and the pirate decorate the prow of the ship with many roses. Suddenly the pirate throws the girl into the ship. There are many tears of the girl, but in vain—the pirate stands at the end of the ship and steers it.

13.10.26: Level 3 / 3+ (Review): Hillard & Botting [72] Labours of Hercules (7)

Ōlim in īnsulā quādam, quae prope Hispāniam esse crēdēbātur, habitābat mōnstrum horrendum, Gēryon nōmine, quī tria corpora habēbat: huius pecora gigās et canis, cui duo erant capita, custōdiēbant. Haec cum reportāre iussus esset Herculēs per multās terrās errābat, tandem ad Libyam vēnit, ubi Herculis Columnās posuit; quō in itinere, cum magnopere sōlis ārdōre vexārētur, sagittam in ipsum sōlem ēmisit. Quā audāciā adeō deō placuit ut auream eī lintrem daret, in quā ad illam īnsulam nāvigāvit. Ibi et gigantem et canem ūnā cum ipsō dominō occīdit, tum praedam āvexit: auream autem lintrem sōlī reddidit. Pecora, cum plūrima perīcula superāvisset, tandem reportāvit ad rēgem, ā quō Iūnōnī immolāta sunt.

[1] Why are the following referred to? Give details.

[i] island (2)

[ii] three

[iii] two

[2] What was the role of the giant and the dog? (1)

[3] What had Hercules been ordered to bring back?

[A] Geryon [B] the dog [C] cattle [D] the giant? (1)

[4] What phrase tells you that Hercules’ journey was long? Quote the Latin and give the translation. (2)

[5] What happened in Libya? (1)

[6] Translate: “quō in itinere, cum magnopere sōlis ārdōre vexārētur, sagittam in ipsum sōlem ēmisit. Quā audāciā adeō deō placuit ut auream eī lintrem daret, in quā ad illam īnsulam nāvigāvit.” (10)

[7] Choose the correct form of the Latin words:

There he killed both the giant and the dog together with their master himself, then he carried off the spoil; but he returned the golden boat to the sun. The cattle, when he had overcome very many dangers, he finally brought back to the king, by whom they were sacrificed to Juno.

Ibi et [gigās / gigantem / gigantis] et canem [ūnā / ūnīus / ūnam] cum [ipsō dominō / ipsīus dominī / ipsī domino] occīdit, tum [praeda / praedā / praedam] āvexit: auream autem lintrem [sōlis / sōle / sōlī] reddidit. Pecora / pecus / pecorum], cum [plūrimīs perīculīs / plūrima perīcula / plūrimōrum perīculōrum] superāvisset, tandem reportāvit ad [rēgem / rēge / rēgī], ā [quī / quā / quō] [Iūnōnī / Iūnōnem / Iūnōne] immolāta sunt.

Vocabulary

gigās, gigantis [3/m]: giant 

ārdor, ardōris [3/m]: heat 

linter, lintris [3/f]: boat 

Notes: subjunctive

(1) pluperfect subjunctive

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/01/190426-level-3-subjunctive-22-tenses-4.html

cum plūrima perīcula superāvisset, … ∣ after / since he had overcome many dangers, …

(2) passive subjunctive forms

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20passive%20%2F%20deponent

Haec cum reportāre iussus esset, … ∣ after / since he had been ordered to bring these things back,

cum magnopere sōlis ārdōre vexārētur, … ∣  while / since he was being greatly troubled by the heat of the sun

(3) result clauses

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20result

… adeō deō placuit ut auream eī lintrem daret, …

… he pleased the god … to such an extent that he gave him a boat, … / he so pleased the god … that he gave him …

____________________

[1]

[i] home of Geryon (1), a horrible monster (1)

[ii] the monster had three bodies (1)

[iii] the dog had two heads (1)

[2] guarded Geryon’s cattle (1)

[3] [C] cattle (1)

[4] per multās terrās errābat (1) ⃒ he wandered through many lands (1)

[5] he set up the Columns / Pillars of Hercules (1)

[6] On this journey (1), when he was being greatly troubled (1) by the heat of the sun (1), he shot an arrow (1) at the sun itself (1). By this boldness (1) he pleased the god so much (1) that he gave him a golden boat (1), in which he sailed (1) to that island (1).

[7] Ibi et gigantem et canem ūnā cum ipsō dominō occīdit, tum praedam āvexit: auream autem lintrem sōlī reddidit. Pecora, cum plūrima perīcula superāvisset, tandem reportāvit ad rēgem, ā quō Iūnōnī immolāta sunt.

____________________

Once upon a time, on a certain island, which was believed to be near Spain, there lived a dreadful monster, by the name of Geryon, who had three bodies, and his cattle were being guarded by a giant and a dog, which had two heads.

When Hercules had been ordered to bring these back, he wandered through many lands; at last he came to Libya, where he set up the Pillars of Hercules. On this journey, when he was being greatly troubled by the heat of the sun, he shot an arrow at the sun itself. By this boldness he pleased the god so much that he gave him a golden boat, in which he sailed to that island.

There he killed both the giant and the dog together with their master himself, then he carried off the spoil; but he returned the golden boat to the sun. The cattle, after he had overcome very many dangers, he finally brought back to the king, by whom they were sacrificed to Juno.

12.10.26: topic: architecture [8]; The Roman House [3]

Wealthy Roman town houses and large, sprawling countryside villas were not only designed to impress, but to win friends and influence people. Entertainment – especially in the form of lavish multi-course banquets – played a significant role in this process.

[i] images #1 and #2: trīclīnium, -ī [2/n]: dining room

As the noun itself suggests: “a triclinium generally contained three couches, and as the usual number of persons occupying each couch was three, the triclinium afforded accommodation for a party of nine.” (Thurston Peck) 

The quotation below indicates that the term was not confined to a location within a house, nor was the number necessarily restricted to nine diners:

pūblicē sibi convīvia parārī1, sternī trīclīnia, et in forō sternī iubēbat (Cicero) ⃒ he ordered banquets to be prepared and couches to be spread for him at the public expense, and to be spread for him in the forum

Professor Mary Beard considers it doubtful that this part of the house was in regular use. Its function was more likely as a place targeted at the “great and the good”, wealthy friends and acquaintances, as well as business associates. To put it in contemporary terms: you would not invite your boss and his wife to dinner in the kitchen – it would be in the dining room.

It was not a place for a “quick snack”: most Roman dwellings had no kitchen, and the kitchens in the wealthy properties are small. Most working class citizens of Pompeii, for example, would have eaten at the thermopōlia, the fast-food outlets of which there were over 80 in the town.

Where the wealthy ate, when they were not in the trīclīnium, is uncertain since there is no other designated eating area. Maybe the Master of the House took breakfast in his office, or sitting by the impluvium or, if the weather was nice, in the peristȳlium – and is that any different from us when we “grab” a bite to eat sitting at the kitchen table, or in front of the TV, or while we’re working on our laptops?

[ii] exedra, -ae [1/f] < Anc. Gk.  ἐξ (ex, “out of”) + ἕδρα (hédra, “seat”): a recessed space or alcove, often semicircular, furnished with seating and commonly opening off a larger room or courtyard; it was a place for conversations, discussions etc. in other words a place where the Master may go with a client for a “private chat”.

Image #3 shows an example from a late Roman villa, the floored section being the exedra. The rest of the floor is missing and reveals the hypocaustum i.e. the underfloor heating system.

[iii] cubiculum, -ī [2/n]: bedroom

Image #4: Archaeologists at Pompeii discovered the skeleton of a man and a woman in a small bedroom of a house where they may have been hiding from the eruption.

[iv] andrōn, -is [3/m]: passage between two walls of a house; hallway; passageway

[v] posticum, -ī [2/n]: back door

[vi] (a) balneum, -ī [2/n]; (b) latrīna, -ae [1/f]

The terms are not interchangeable:

(a) balneum: bath; place for bathing; bathroom

(b) latrīna: toilet; Engl. deriv. latrine

Image #5: latrine with reconstructed wooden seat (Pompeii)

Images #6 and #7: most of the second storeys of the houses in Pompeii were destroyed, but the terracotta downpipe suggests that a toilet was upstairs.

Pompeii had public bathing facilities and public toilets which were accessible to everybody although some facilities would have required a small entrance fee.

[vii] culīna, -ae [1/f]: kitchen

Image #8: kitchen in the house of the Vettii in Pompeii, which leads us back to the beginning of this post. Could a kitchen that size have produced the amount of food required for the lavish banquets held in the triclinium?

It is likely that much of the food was prepared in advance or obtained from outside sources such as vendors, with the domestic kitchen used mainly for finishing and serving dishes. In addition, large households would have had slaves working intensively in confined spaces, and cooking may at times have been supplemented by using portable braziers, temporary outdoor hearths in the courtyard or peristyle, or by preparing dishes in stages rather than all at once.