26.10.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [12][iii] principal parts

If you are a non-native speaker of English, or, for example, French or German you will be aware of this even if you don’t know the specific term principal parts.

I play –  he plays – I played – I have played; in English, this is most commonly known as a regular verb i.e. it has a set of endings that are consistently added to thousands of verbs.

But: I sing – he sings – I sang – I have sung; these are generally classified as irregular verbs i.e. their forms cannot be anticipated, but need to be recognised and memorised. English grammar books usually provide a list of these e.g  fall – fell – fallen; break – broke – broken. Once those parts are learned then all other tenses of the verb can be formed, for example:

fall: he falls, he is / was falling, he will fall, he would fall

fell: he fell on the stairs

fallen: he has fallen on the stairs; I would have fallen if I had done that

Latin does the same; most verbs have four principal parts but, for now, just become aware of three of them:

portō, portāre, portāvī [1]: carry

[1] portō: 1^st person singular present tense

[2] portāre: infinitive

[1] and [2] were discussed in the previous section (Carolus et Maria [11][i])

[3] portāvī: 1^st person singular perfect tense

Knowing these becomes increasingly important as you move on and are introduced to other tenses. In the previous section (Carolus et Maria [12][ii]), it was shown that the perfect tense is formed from the 3^rd principal part for example: portō, portāre, portāvī

[i] portāv¦ī

[ii] remove the ending > portāv-; you now have the stem for the perfect tense. Once you have that, it never changes and that applies to all verbs in Latin

[iii] add the perfect tense endings to the stem

portāvī │ I (have) carried

portāvistī │ you (sg.) (have) carried

portāvit │(s)he / it (has) carried

portāvimus │ we(have) carried

portāvistis │ you (pl.) (have) carried

portāvērunt │ they (have) carried

It is the third principal part that needs attention because, as with the English irregular verbs, it very often cannot be anticipated. The image shows some examples of three of the four principal parts of verbs. It isn’t necessary to learn all of these at this stage, but just be aware of what these three parts are and take note of the frequent irregularity of the third part.

From now on, all the verbs in the Carolus et Maria texts will be listed with their principal parts. You are not going to need them all (not yet:

lacrimō, lacrimāre, lacrimāvī [1]: cry

More information is available at the following links:

13.03.24: principal parts of verbs

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/130324-principal-parts-of-verbs.html

13.03.24: Daily routine [1]; the principal parts of verbs

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/130324-daily-routine-1-principal-parts.html

13.03.24: daily routine [2]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/130324-daily-routine-2.html

21.05.24: Level 2: perfect tense [1] stem, endings; first conjugation (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/200524-level-2-perfect-tense-1-stem.html

15.12.24; Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [31]

The Return of Caesar to Gaul

Caesar had not advanced far into the island, but, as certain tribes had submitted and as winter was approaching, he decided to return to Gaul, where he had to deal with a rising of the Morini.

Britannī lēgātōs ad Caesarem dē pāce statim mīsērunt. Caesar pācem Britannis dēdit et obsidēs imperāvit. Inde, quia tempestās erat idōnea, post mediam noctem nāvēs solvit et tūtus ad continentem pervēnit. Sed duae nāvēs onerāriae quae portum capere nōn poterant, ad agrōs Morinōrum nāvigāvērunt. Morinī impetum fēcērunt contrā mīlitēs, quī hostibus multās hōrās resistēbant. Caesar omnēs equitēs statim mīsit. Proximō diē Titus Labiēnus cum legiōnibus, quās ex Britanniā redūxerat, contrā Morinōs iter fēcit. Inde Menapiī et Morinī in potestātem Caesaris sē dedērunt.

Vocabulary

continēns, continentis [3/f]: mainland

nāvīs, -is [3/f] onerāria: transport / cargo ship

tūtus, -a, -um: safe

Questions

[A] Find the Latin. Note that the literal translations can sound a little odd in English and sometimes need to be reworked to give a more fluent expression.

1. (they) … sent ambassadors / envoys … ¦ about [i.e. to discuss; agree on terms for] peace
2. (he) … gave / granted peace (to the Britons)
3. (he) … commanded hostages
4. (he) … “loosened” the ships (i.e. the ships were untied from their moorings); he set sail
5. (they) … reached (the continent)
6. (they) … sailed to the “fields” / territory (of the Morini)
7. (they) … made an attack / attacked
8. (they) … resisted the enemy
9. (he) … sent all the cavalry
10. (he) … set out i.e. marched (against the Morini)
11. (they) … gave themselves into the power of Caesar i.e. they surrendered to the control of Caesar

[B] Grammar review [1]: Identify the case(s) in each of these expressions and explain why it is used:

1. proximō diē
2. post mediam noctem
3. [i] hostibus [ii] multās hōrās ¦ resistēbant
4. [i] in potestātem [ii] Caesaris ¦ sē dedērunt
5. quās ex Britanniā redūxerat

[C] Grammar review [2]: give the first person singular present tense of the following verbs from the text:

1. dedit
2. fēcērunt
3. mīsērunt
4. nāvigāvērunt
5. pervēnit
6. poterant
7. redūxerat
8. resistēbant

____________________

The Britons immediately sent envoys to Caesar to discuss peace. Caesar granted peace to the Britons and demanded hostages. Then, because the weather was suitable, he unmoored the ships [= set sail] after midnight and safely reached the continent. But two cargo ships which were not able to get to the harbour sailed to the territory of the Morini. The Morini attacked the soldiers, who resisted the enemy for many hours. Caesar immediately sent all the cavalry. On the next day Titus Labienus marched against the Morini with the legions which he had brought back from Britannia. Then the Menapi and the Morini surrendered to the control of Caesar.

14.11.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [30]

Posteā multōs diēs erant tempestātēs, quae Rōmānōs in castrīs continēbant et hostēs ā pugnā prohibēbant. Interim Britannī nūntiōs ad partēs multās mīsērunt et auxilium rogāvērunt. Magna multitūdō equitum et peditum ad castra Britannōrum venit. Inde Caesar, quia habēbat trecentōs equitēs, quōs Commius Atrebās trānsportāverat ex Galliā, legiōnēs suās prō castrīs īnstituit. Britannī, quī impetum mīlitum Rōmānōrum sustinēre nōn poterant, terga vertērunt. Inde Caesar, postquam agrōs hostium vastāvit et aedificia multa incendit, cōpiās ad castra dūxit.

Atrebās, Atrebātis [3/m]: Atrabatian, a member of the Atrebātēs, a Celtic tribe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrebates

īnstituō, -ere, -uī [3]: set up; arrange

Questions

Six of the following statements are correct:

1. A storm prevented the Romans from fighting.
2. Atrebas had brought cavalry from Gaul.
3. Caesar had 300 horses.
4. Caesar led the troops to the camp and destroyed the fields.
5. Caesar’s troops burned a building.
6. Cavalry and infantry came to the aid of the Britons.
7. Legions were inside the camp.
8. Messengers were sent to the Britons.
9. The Britons asked for help.
10. The Britons could not withstand the Romans’ attack.
11. The enemy prevented the Romans from leaving the camp.
12. The enemy’s fields were destroyed.
13. The Romans could not fight because of storms.
14. The Romans could not withstand the Britons’ attack.

Military vocabulary: verbs

If you’re reading a report in a newspaper about, for example, a crime, the same vocabulary and phrases will come up again and again. The same applies to the many accounts of battles in Latin; vocabulary related to the nouns concerning warfare have already been given in five previous posts:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/08/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-1.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/08/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-2.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-3.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-4.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-5.html

Here we can begin to list verbs and phrases that are very common in this type of writing:

(1) dūcō, -ere, dūxī [3]: lead; redūcō: lead back

(2) incendō, -ere, incendī [3]: set (something) on fire; burn

(3) ([i] nuntiōs [ii] lēgātōs) mittō, -ere, mīsī [3]: send ([i] messengers [ii] envoys (ambassadors), people to negotiate)

(4) prohibeō, -ēre, -uī [2]: hold back; prevent; keep (somebody) away from something; tempestatēs … hostēs ā pugnā prohibēbant │ Storms … prevented the enemy from fighting (kept them away from the fight)

(5) (auxilium) rogō, -āre, -āvī [1] ask for (help); English needs ‘for’ whereas the Latin verb is followed by an accusative

(6) (impetum) sustineō, -ēre, -uī [2]: withstand (an attack)

(7) ([i] cōpiās [ii] equitēs [iii] peditēs) trānsportō, -āre, -āvī [1]: transport ([i] troops [ii] cavalry [iii] infantry)

(8) vastō, -āre, -āvī [1]: lay waste; agrōs vastāvit: he laid waste the fields, which sounds rather odd in English but really means he flattened the place!

(9) vertō, -ere, vertī [3]: turn (away); tergum, -ī [2/n]: back; tergum or terga vertērunt: they turned their backs i.e. retreated; were on the run

____________________

Afterwards there were storms for many days, which kept the Romans in their camp and prevented the enemy from fighting. Meanwhile the Britons sent messengers to many parts / everywhere and asked for help. A great multitude / a huge number of cavalry and infantry came to the camp of the Britons. Then Caesar, because he had three hundred horsemen, whom Commius,  an Atrebatian had transported from Gaul, set up his legions before the camp. The Britons, who could not withstand the onslaught of the Romans, turned tail. Then Caesar, after he had laid waste the fields of the enemy and set fire to many buildings, led the troops to the camp.

10.11.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [29]

Britannī genus ex essedīs pugnae habent. Prīmō per partēs multās perequitant et tēla coniciunt atque terrōre equōrum et clāmōre rotārum ōrdinēs hostium perturbant. Inde ex essedīs dēsiliunt et pedibus pugnant. Interim aurīgae ex pugnā discēdunt, sed, ubi hostēs suōs premunt, auxilium subministrant. Novum genus pugnae legiōnēs Rōmānās perturbat: sed, ubi Caesar pervenit, Rōmānī timōrem āmittunt atque Caesar legiōnēs ad castra redūcit.

Vocabulary and notes

āmittō, -ere, āmīsī [3]: lose

coniciō, -ere, coniēcī [3-iō]: throw; hurl

essedum, -ī [2/n]: chariot

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=essedum-harpers

ōrdō, ōrdinis [3/m]: line of soldiers

perequitō, -āre, -āvī [1]: ride around / through

premō, -ere, pressī [3]: (here) overwhelm; overcome i.e. the sense that the Britons are getting the upper hand on the Romans

subministrō, -āre, -āvī [1]: supply

Note: ablative uses

pedibus pugnant │ they fight on foot [literally: on (their) feet]

terrōre equōrum et clāmōre rotārum ōrdinēs hostium perturbant.

They confuse / alarm the enemy ranks. How do they do that? They do it because of the fear of the horses [= by frightening the horses; because the horses are afraid] and by the sound of the wheels i.e. the ablative is expressing the means by which the action is carried out

Questions

In which order are the following statements first made?

• arrival of Caesar
• charioteers withdrawing
• fighting from chariots
• fighting on foot
• frightening horses
• hurling weapons
• jumping from the chariots
• losing their fear
• noisy wheels
• providing assistance
• returning to camp
• riding in different directions

____________________

The Britons have a type of fighting from chariots. At first they ride in many directions and throw weapons, and through the terror of the horses and the noise of the wheels they confuse the ranks of the enemy. Then they jump out of the chariots and fight on their feet. In the meantime, the charioteers withdraw from the battle, but when the enemy are overwhelming their own men, they provide assistance. The new kind of battle disturbs the Roman legions: but when Caesar arrives, the Romans lose their fear, and Caesar brings the legions back to camp.

06.11.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [28]

A Sudden Attack

Dum Rōmānī frūmentum comparant atque nāvēs reparant, pars legiōnis in agrīs manēbat, pars in castrīs. Inde mīlitēs, quī erant in statiōne prō portīs castrōrum, quod impetum hostium timēbant, nūntiōs ad Caesarem mīsērunt. Cōpiae Britannōrum in silvīs sē occultāverant, atque subitō fēcērunt impetum contrā Rōmānōs incautōs, quī frūmentum comparābant; paucōs necāvērunt aut vulnerāvērunt; equitēs Britannōrum et esseda multōs perturbāvērunt.

Vocabulary

• incautus, -a, -um: unsuspecting i.e. the idea that the Romans were caught off guard
• pars … pars …: some … others …
• pars, partis [3/f]: part
• perturbō, -āre, -āvī [1]: alarm; confuse
• stātiō, statiōnis [3/f]: (often in a military sense) watch; station; position

Questions

1. What were the Romans doing at the beginning of the passage? [2]
2. Where were the soldiers stationed? [2]
3. Why did the soldiers send messengers to Caesar? [2]
4. Where were the Britons hiding? [1]
5. How is the attack described? [1]
6. How many were killed or wounded? [1]
7. What caused many Romans great alarm? [2]

Grammar review: identifying case and usage

This is an exercise that is given in the UK GCSE and A Level examination: [i] identify the case [nothing else; no need to provide gender or number] and [ii] explain why that case is being used. [iii] The A Level also suggests that a translation of the phrase can be provided to help clarify the meaning.

Which explanation goes with which phrase?

[1] pars legiōnis

[2] Cōpiae Britannōrum

[3] subitō fēcērunt impetum

[4] prō portīs castrōrum

[5] contrā Rōmānōs

[6] Dum Rōmānī frūmentum comparant

• ablative case with preposition [name the preposition; give its meaning]
• accusative case with preposition [name the preposition; give its meaning]
• accusative case; direct object i.e. the person / thing experiencing the action
• genitive case; genitive of possession e.g. something that belongs to somebody else = often translates as ‘of’ someone or something
• genitive case; partitive genitive e.g. a smaller part of something larger; think of “a bottle of wine”
• nominative case; subject of the sentence i.e. the person / thing performing the action

____________________

While the Romans were procuring grain and repairing the ships, some of the legion remained in the fields, and others in the camp. Then the soldiers, who were on watch (were stationed) before the gates of the camp, because they feared an enemy attack, sent messengers to Caesar. The troops of the Britons had hidden themselves in the woods, and suddenly made an attack against the unsuspecting Romans, who were gathering corn; they killed or wounded a few; the cavalry and chariots of the Britons and alarmed many (of them).

18.10.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [27]

A Storm

Dum Rōmānī contrā Britannōs pugnant, lūna erat plēna atque magna erat tempestās. Itaque XVIII nāvēs Rōmānae, quae equitēs trānsportābant, propter tempestātem ad īnsulam pervenīre nōn poterant, sed ad Galliam iterum nāvigāverant. Interim in Britanniā tempestās nāvēs multās Caesaris adflīctāvit*. Prīncipēs Britannōrum, ubi dē tempestāte audīvērunt, rebelliōnem contrā Caesarem parābant. Sed Caesar, quod impetum hostium timēbat, frūmentum comparābat atque nāvēs multās reparābat.

*adflīctō: alternative form of afflīctō, -āre, -āvī [1] (here) damage

Note:

Dum Rōmānī contrā Britannōs pugnant [present tense], lūna erat plēna atque magna erat tempestās. │ While the Romans were fighting against the Britons, the moon was full and there was a great storm.

Dum (while) regularly appears in the present tense, even though the narrative in the past, to emphasise that these events were happening at the same time.

Questions

1. How many ships are referred to? [1]
2. What were those ships doing? [1]
3. Why could the ships not reach the island? [1]
4. What had they done instead? [1]
5. What happened to the ships in Britain? [2]
6. What did the Britons decide to do? [2]
7. What did Caesar fear? [1]
8. What did he do? [2]

Grammar review: parsing nouns

Parsing has never been done in the group. However, if you’re now well on your way at Level 2, it’s good to have some practice in it because it helps to reinforce not only the meanings of words but to be precise in what those words are actually doing in a sentence. To parse a word means to analyse the form of the word. In Latin, when parsing a noun, there are usually three pieces of information you need to give:

[i] case (nominative, accusative etc.)  [ii] number (singular / plural) [iii] gender (masculine / feminine / neuter); they don’t have to be in that order

Example:

puellam

[i] accusative

[ii] singular

[iii] feminine

____________________

[iv] You may also need to give the nominative singular: puella

All of that can be abbreviated:

puellam: acc. sg. fem. < puella

I mention the inclusion of the nominative singular because some Latin examinations ask for the nominative singular of the noun rather than details of the parsing. Here are some examples from UK examination papers where the candidate is expected to be able to parse to some extent i.e. to identify the case.

(a) cum Latinis (line 1): identify the case of Latinis and explain why this case is used here.

(c) Identify an example of the accusative case in line 2.

(e) in alia parte Italiae (line 2): identify the case of Italiae.

[OCR GCSE 2022]

(g) e manibus (line 5): identify the case of manibus and explain why this case is used here.

(h) e manibus Volscorum (line 5): identify the case of Volscorum.

[OCR GCSE 2021]

State and explain the case of the following, using a translation if you think it is helpful:

(a) aliis (line 1)

(b) Alexandriae (line 4)

(c) agentis (line 11)

(d) cui (line 11)

[OCR A Level 2023]

Note also that, in questions of this type, you are asked to explain why the case is being used. We’ll do more practice on that in a later post.

Images #1 and #2: Try parsing these nouns from the text; use the image file since the line numbers match and remember that, even if a noun has the same ending for more than one case, it is the case in context that you need to give. Therefore, in an examination, look at the line number references because the word may appear more than once.

The table with the answers is given at the end of the post.

____________________

While the Romans were fighting against the Britons, the moon was full and there was a great storm. And so the 18 Roman ships, which were transporting the horsemen, could not reach the island because of the storm, but had sailed again to Gaul. Meanwhile in Britain the storm damaged many of Caesar's ships. The chiefs of the Britons, when they heard about the storm, prepared a rebellion against Caesar. But Caesar, because he was afraid of an enemy attack, procured corn and repaired many ships.

____________________

14.10.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [26]

Inde Rōmānī et Britannī ācriter pugnābant. Sed Rōmānī hostem fugāre nōn poterant, quod ōrdinēs nōn servābant atque altitūdō maris impediēbat. V ada Britannis erant nōta, equōs suōs contrā Rōmānōs incitābant, multī Britannī cum Rōmānīs paucīs pugnābant. Tandem mīlitēs Rōmānī, ubi in ōram āridam pervēnērunt, impetum magnum fēcērunt et hostēs fugāvērunt. Victōria nōn erat magna, quod equitēs cursum tenēre atque īnsulam capere* nōn potuērunt.

*capere: (here) reach rather than capture

Vocabulary

cursus, -ūs [4/m]: course; cursum tenēre: maintain a direct course

impetus, -ūs [4/m]: attack

ōrdō, ōrdinis [3/m]: (here) rank or line of soldiers; ōrdinēs nōn servābant: They didn’t maintain / keep in their ranks

Questions

1. How is the fighting described between the Britons and the Romans? [1]
2. For what two reasons were the Romans unable to make the Britons flee? [3]
3. What did the Britons know about? [1]
4. What did the Britons do with their horses? [2]
5. What sentence tells you that there were more Britons than Romans in the battle? [1]
6. When were the Romans able to make an attack? [1]
7. “Victōria nōn erat magna”: what two reasons are given for this statement? [3]

Grammar review

Give the first person singular present tense of these verbs from the text:

• capere
• erant
• fēcērunt
• fugāre
• impediēbat
• pervēnērunt
• poterant
• tenēre

____________________

Then the Romans and the Britons fought fiercely. But the Romans could not put the enemy to flight, because they did not keep order [= keep in ranks], and the depth of the sea hindered them. The shallow waters were known to the Britons, and they spurred on their horses against the Romans, and many Britons fought with a few Romans. At last the Romans, when they reached a dry place, made a great attack and put the enemy to flight. The victory was not great, because the horsemen were unable to maintain a direct course and reach the island.

10.10.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [25]

Mīlitēs Rōmānī propter altitūdinem maris in aquam dēsilīre nōn audēbant. Inde mīles, quī aquilam decimae legiōnis ferēbat, Rōmānōs ex timōre excitāvit. ‘Dēsilīte, mīlitēs,’ inquit, ‘nisi aquilam hostibus prōdere vultis: ego officium cīvitātī et imperātōrī praestābō.’ Inde, ubi in aquam dēsiluerat, in hostēs aquilam ferēbat. Tum mīlitēs Rōmānī ex nāvī dēsiluērunt atque cēterī, ubi virtūtem mīlitum cōnspexērunt, hostibus appropinquābant.

Vocabulary

dēsiliō, -īre, dēsiluī [4]: [i] (here) jump down; [ii] dismount

imperator, imperatōris [3/m]: our first reaction when seeing this noun is “emperor” which, given the time during which this incident happened, could not be applied to any Roman head of state; the loyalty which the standard-bearer expresses is to Caesar, the commander-in-chief of the army; it was also a term of honour conferred during the period of the Republic on a general after a major victory.

nisi: unless

officium, -ī [2/n]: (here) duty

praestō, -āre, praestitī [1]: (here) show

prōdō, -ere, prōdidī [3]: (here) give up; surrender; abandon, or betray

timor, timōris [3/m]: fear

Questions

1. Why did the Romans not want to jump into the sea? [1]
2. What was one soldier carrying? [2]
3. In your own words, what did the soldier say to encourage the others? [7]  ‘[i] Dēsilīte, mīlitēs,’ inquit, ‘[ii] nisi [iii] aquilam [iv] hostibus prōdere vultis: [v] ego officium ¦ [vi] cīvitātī ¦ et [vii] imperātōrī ¦ praestābō.’
4. What did the soldier do after he had jumped into the water? [1]
5. How did the other soldiers react? [2]
6. Why did the others approach the enemy? [2]

Grammar review

Give the nominative singular of the following 3^rd declension nouns in the text (answers are at the end of the post):

• altitūdinem
• cīvitātī
• hostibus
• imperātōrī
• legiōnis
• maris
• nāvī
• virtūtem

____________________

Because of the depth of the sea, the Roman soldiers did not dare to jump into the water. Then a soldier, who carried the eagle of the tenth legion, roused the Romans from (their) fear. 'Jump down, soldiers,' he said, 'unless you wish to betray the eagle to the enemies: I will show my duty to the state and to the general.' Then the Roman soldiers jumped down from the ship, and the rest, when they saw the courage of the Roman soldiers, approached the enemy.

____________________

The text is referring to an incident in Caesar’s Dē Bellō Gallicō (4.5). When they were attempting to land, the Romans were attacked by the Britons from the shore. Since the large Roman ships could not get too close to the coast, the troops needed to jump into deep water and, therefore, were reluctant to attack. However, in Caesar’s account, one officer – an aquilifer (standard-bearer) of the Tenth Legion – leapt into the water while encouraging the men to follow. Caesar does not name him but recounts what he says. These are the actual words from Dē Bellō Gallicō 4.5:

‘Dēsilīte', inquit, 'mīlitēs, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prōdere; ego certē meum reī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium praestiterō.’ │ "Leap, fellow soldiers, unless you wish to betray your eagle to the enemy. I certainly [= I at least]  shall have performed my duty to the republic and my general."

To lose a standard to the enemy would be a great dishonour and so the Romans jumped into the water after him. Through this act of bravery, a single soldier acted as an inspiration for all the others.

If you’re moving into the literature, these incidents are worth bearing in mind because they show part of the Roman value system: loyalty to the nation and to the commander, and, of course, bravery, even to the point of audācia which can imply recklessness i.e. possibly against all odds and with no thought of the consequences for oneself. 

____________________

altitūdō

cīvitās

hostis

imperātor

legiō

mare

nāvis

virtūs

04.10.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [24]

Sed Rōmānī, ubi ad locum plānum pervēnērunt cōpiās suās expōnere nōn potuērunt. Magna erat difficultās propter causās multās: loca Rōmānīs erant incognita; Rōmānī aquam timēbant; magna et gravia arma opprimēbant mīlitēs; hostēs ex āridō pugnābant. Sed Caesar, ubi difficultātem cognōvit, nāvēs longās ad latus apertum hostium mīsit: inde Rōmānī fundīs, sagittīs, tormentīs pugnābant, sed Britannōs nōn fugāvērunt.

funda, -ae [1/f]: hand-sling; funditor, funditōris [3/m]: slinger; person who fights using a sling

latus, lateris [3/n]: side

[1] “Magna erat difficultās propter causās multās…”

In note form, give in English the four difficulties that the Romans faced when attempting to land in Britain.

[2] What did Caesar do to get around these problems?

[3] What did the Romans use to fight the Britons?

[4] How successful were the Romans in the battle?

Ablative of means / instrument

Rōmānī fundīs, sagittīs, tormentīs pugnābant. │ The Romans fought with slingshots, (with) arrows [and] (with) siege machines.

In the previous post, it was mentioned that each ablative use has its own name. This is a good example of why this is done.

[i] Ablative of accompaniment: Caesar cum legiōnibus suīs nāvigāvit. │ Caesar sailed with his legions.

[ii] Ablative of means / instrument: Rōmānī … sagittīs … pugnābant. │ The Romans fought with [by means of] arrows.

Both English translations use the preposition ‘with’ whereas Latin only uses it with [i] above i.e. the ablative alone without a preposition expresses, here, the objects that were used to fight.

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But the Romans, when they had arrived at a level location, were not able to land their troops. The difficulty was great for many reasons: the locations were unknown to the Romans; The Romans feared water; large and heavy weapons weighed down the soldiers; they fought the enemies from dry land. But Caesar, when he recgonised the difficulty, sent long ships to the open side of the enemy: from there the Romans fought with slings, arrows, and seige machines, but they did not put the Britons to flight.

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Image of a funditor (a sling-shot thrower) from Trajan’s column

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=funda-harpers

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=funda-cn

30.09.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [23]

Caesar, quī cum suīs legiōnibus ā Galliā nāvigāverat, hōrā quārtā ad Britanniam vēnit. Ibi cōpiās hostium in collibus vīdit; collēs erant altī; lītus nōn erat idōneum; Caesar ad hōram nōnam in ancorīs exspectāvit. Interim, ubi lēgātōs et tribūnōs mīlitum convocāverat, suum cōnsilium ostendit. Inde, quod ventus et aestus erant idōneī et nāvēs reliquae pervēnerant, Caesar ad locum plānum et apertum nāvigāvit. Sed Britannī, quī cōnsilium Caesaris cognōvērunt, equitēs et esseda praemīsērunt atque cum omnibus cōpiīs ad locum vēnērunt.

aestus, -ūs [4/m]: (here) tide but can also mean ‘heat’

essedum, -ī [2/m]: chariot (see notes at the end)

Throughout the posts, the uses of the ablative case have been explained as they have occurred, and some more detailed posts are being planned so that we can look at all of them together.

Here is an “explanation” of the ablative case from another Latin website:

The ablative case is sometimes called the “everything case”, since it seems to do a bit of, well, everything. 

That isn’t true.

If every case in Latin were given a “job description”, those job descriptions would be fairly short and specific – with the exception of the ablative. The job spec for the ablative is considerably longer but it is by no means random and it doesn’t “do a bit of, well, everything”: it performs very clear roles.

Each use of the ablative case has its own name; it isn’t essential to know those names but it does help in coming to grips with the usages. In the first sentence from the text above there are three common ablative uses:

Caesar, qui [i] cum suīs legiōnibus [ii] ā Galliā ¦ nāvigāverat, [iii] hōrā quartā ¦ ad Britanniam vēnit.

[i] Caesar, qui [i] cum suīs legiōnibus … nāvigāverat │ Caesar, who had sailed with his legions …

This is the ablative of accompaniment and used when referring to the person (together) with whom the action is being performed.

Caesar, qui cum suīs legiōnibus …nāvigāverat, │ Caesar, who had sailed (together) with his legions …

cum omnibus copiīs ad locum vēnērunt │ They came to the place with all the troops

[2] Caesar, quī … [ii] ā Galliā ¦ nāvigāverat, │ Caesar, who had sailed … (away) from Gaul

ā / ab + ablative: the ablative of place from which (note: the original text, in order to be consistent, should have a macron above the ā) 

The prepositions ā / ab, dē and ē / ex can all convey movement from a place:

Senex dē mūrō cecidit. │ The old man fell off / down from the wall.

Agricolae ex agrīs ambulant. │ The farmer are walking out of the fields.

[3] horā quartā: the ablative of time when

When referring to a specific point or period in time the ablative without a preposition is used:

horā quartā │ at the fourth hour

hieme │ in winter

annō secundō │ in the second year

Here is a fourth use from the text:

[4] the ablative of place at which

Ibi cōpiās hostium in collibus vīdit. │ There he saw the enemy’s troops in the hills.

Caesar … in ancorīs exspectāvit. │ Caesar waited … at anchor (La. uses a plural)

The ablative together with a preposition expresses where an action is taking place or where a person / thing is. There is no suggestion of movement:

Senex in hortō dēambulābat. │ The old was taking a walk in the garden. The old man is moving but the ablative expresses where he is performing that action. He isn’t walking into the garden.

There is still much more to do with regard to the uses of the ablative. As always, try to acquire them step-by-step.

Here are four terms together with one sentence to illustrate each use:

[1] ablative of place at which

Caesar copiās hostium in collibus vīdit. │ Caesar saw the enemy troops in / on the hills.

[2] ablative of place from which

Caesar ā Galliā nāvigāvit. │ Caesar sailed away from Gaul.

[3] ablative of accompaniment

Caesar cum legiōnibus suīs nāvigāvit. │ Caesar sailed with his legions.

[4] ablative of time when

Caesar hōrā quartā ad Britanniam vēnit. │ Caesar reached Britain at the fourth hour.

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Caesar, who had sailed with his legions from Gaul, arrived in Britain at the fourth hour. There he saw troops of the enemy on the hills; the hills were high; the shore was not suitable; Caesar waited at anchor until the ninth hour. In the meantime, when he had summoned the emissaries and tribunes, he explained his plan. From there, when the wind and tide were suitable and the other ships had arrived, Caesar sailed to a flat and open place. But the Britons, who learned of Caesar's plan, sent forth their horsemen and chariots, and came to the place with all their troops.

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essedum, -ī [2/n]: chariot

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=essedum-cn

The text is referring specifically to the war chariot used by the Britons:

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_Romana/britannia/boudica/chariot.html

20.09.24: Practice in reading the perfect tense; A First Latin Reader (Vincent) [22]

Caesar, ubi cōpiās et nāvēs ad portum Itium convocāverat, omnēs rēs ad bellum Britannicum parāvit. Inde Caesar legiōnēs in octōgintā nāvibus onerāriīs trānsportāvit : XVIII nāvēs onerāriās equitibus distribuit. Quīntus Titūrius Sabīnus et Lūcius Aurunculēius Cotta, lēgātī, exercitum reliquum dūxērunt contrā Morinōs et Menapiōs, quī erant gentēs Gallicae. Pūblius Sulpicius Rūfus cum praesidiō portum Itium tenēbat. Inde Caesar tertiā ferē vigiliā ubi tempestās erat idōnea, solvit. Equitēs etiam, quī ad portum ulteriōrem prōcesserant, nāvēs cōnscendērunt.

praesidium, -ī [2/n] has various meanings depending on context: [i] protection; defence [ii] assistance [iii] (here) garrison, but can also refer to a convoy or an escort

solvō, -ere, solvī [3]: [i] loosen; untie [ii] (here) set sail i.e. loosen the moorings (of a ship)

tempestās, tempestātis [3/f] can mean storm, but also a more general meaning of “weather”

ulterior, ulterius: further; more remote this is the comparative form of the adjective, the equivalent of English longer or more beautiful. This feature of the language will be discussed in detail in later posts.

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Caesar, when he had summoned troops and ships to the port of Itius, prepared all things for the British war. Then Caesar transported the legions in eighty cargo ships: he distributed eighteen cargo ships to the cavalry. Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculius Cotta, as envoys, led the rest of the army against the Morini and Menapii, who were Gallic tribes. Publius Sulpicius Rufus held the port of Itius with a garrison. Then, at about the third watch, when the weather was suitable, Caesar set sail. The horsemen also, who had proceeded to the further port, boarded the ships.

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[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menapii

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itius_Portus

Campaign Map of 55 and 54 BC by Towle & Jenks

[3] “tertiā ferē vigiliā”: the night was divided into four “watches” (vigiliae) from sunset to sunrise

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/220324-ordinal-numbers-2-telling-time.html

https://dcc.dickinson.edu/caesar/book-4/chapter-4-24

[4] detailed information concerning the role of a legātus can be found here:

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=legatus-harpers

12.09.24:Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [21]

Caesar dē bellō Britannicō in suīs librīs nārrat. Postquam gentēs multās et Gallōrum et Germānōrum superāvit, propter duās causās ad Britanniam cōpiās dūxit. Prīmum Britannī auxilia Gallīs in bellīs Gallicīs subministrāverant; deinde īnsula, gentēs, loca īnsulae Gallīs erant incognita. Mercātōribus, quī ad īnsulam nāvigābant, ōra maritima sōla erat nota. Caesar, ubi mercātōrēs convocāvit, pauca cognōvit. Itaque Volusēnum, lēgātum, ad Britanniam cum nāvī longā mīsit, et cum suīs cōpiīs iter contrā Morinōs fēcit. Volusēnus, quī ad Caesarem ā Britanniā post quīnque diēs vēnit, pauca sōla nārrāvit.

[i] Gaius Volusenus Quadratus was a distinguished military officer of the Roman Republic, serving under Julius Caesar for ten years, during both the Gallic Wars and the civil war of the 40s. Caesar praises him in his narrative:

C. Volusēnus, tribūnus mīlitum, vir et cōnsiliī magnī et virtūtis (B.G. 3.5) │ C. Volusenus, a tribune of the soldiers, a man of great skill and valour

[ii]

nāvis longa: ship of war

nāvis onerāria: transport / cargo ship

nāvis mercātōria: merchant ship

Notes:

Use of the dative case

Mercātōribus … ōra maritima sōla erat nota. │ Only the coastline was known to the merchants.

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Caesar tells (us) about the British war in his books. After he had overcome many tribes of both the Gauls and Germans, he led troops to Britain for two reasons. First the Britons had supplied aid to the Gauls in the Gallic wars; then the island, the nations, and the places of the island were unknown to the Gauls. Only the sea coast was known to the merchants who were sailing to the island. Caesar, when he summoned the merchants, knew little. And so he sent Volusenus as an emissary, to Britain with a long ship, and he marched against the Morinos with his troops. Volusenus, who came to Caesar from Britain after five days, only described a few things.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallic_Wars

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico

Online versions of Dē bellō Gallicō:

https://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.html

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Caesar/Gallic_War/home.html

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0001

first page of the 1469 edition of dē bellō Gallicō

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morini

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain

10.09.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [20]

Caesar, postquam suās cōpiās ex Ītaliā dūxit, Helvētiōs superāvit; inde Ariovistum, quī erat dux Germānōrum, trāns Rhēnum expulit; annō tertiō, postquam classem aedificāvit, nāvēs Gallōrum dēlēvit. Annō quārtō, quod Germānī auxilium ad Gallōs miserant et impetūs contrā gentēs Gallōrum semper faciēbant, Caesar pontem in Rhēnō fēcit. Caesar, postquam gentēs multās vīcit, oppida Germānōrum incendit et agrōs vastāvit. Interim Britannī classem mīserant et auxilium ad Belgās, quī bellum contrā Caesarem gerēbant. Itaque Caesar impetum contrā Britanniam parābat.

[1] Tense usage

Caesar, ¦ postquam suās cōpiās ex Ītaliā dūxit [perfect], ¦ Helvētiōs superāvit. │ Caesar, after he had led [past perfect] his troops out of Italy, conquered the Helvetii.

Annō tertiō, ¦ postquam classem aedificāvit [perfect], ¦ nāvēs Gallōrum dēlēvit. │ In the third year, after he had built [past perfect] a fleet, he destroyed the ships of the Gauls.

Caesar, ¦ postquam gentēs multās vīcit [perfect], ¦ oppida Germānōrum incendit …│ Caesar, after he had conquered [past perfect] many tribes, set fire to the Germans’ towns…

[i] ubi; postquam: note again that, in translation, English would tend to use the past perfect tense (had done something) in the subordinate clause of time whereas Latin generally uses the perfect (rather than the pluperfect) in constructions with ubi and postquam.

[ii] Look at how the three tenses are working together in the same sentence.

[a] Annō quārtō, quod ¦ [ī] Germānī auxilium ad Gallōs mīserant [pluperfect: an action that had finished before the next past action began]¦ et impetūs contrā gentēs Gallōrum semper [iī] faciēbant [imperfect: an action that was ongoing at that point in the narrative], Caesar pontem in Rhēnō [iīī] fēcit [perfect: a single, completed action in the past ].

In the fourth year, because [i] the Germans had sent aid to the Gauls and [ii] were always making attacks against the tribes of the Gauls [iii] Caesar built a bridge on the Rhine.

[b] Caesar, …, oppida Germānōrum incendit et agrōs vastāvit. Interim Britannī classem mīserant [pluperfect] et auxilium ad Belgās, quī bellum contrā Caesarem gerēbant.

Caesar … set fire to the Germans’ towns and laid waste the fields. Meanwhile, the Britons had sent a fleet and aid to the Belgae, who were waging war against Caesar.

[iii] Itaque Caesar impetum contrā Britanniam parābat.

The imperfect tense can denote the beginning of an action; in grammar this is known as inceptive. In the context here, it would be an appropriate translation i.e. Caesar began preparing an attack against Britannia because of what had been happening up to that point:

Interim Britannī classem mīserant et auxilium ad Belgās, quī bellum contrā Caesarem gerēbant. Itaque Caesar impetum contrā Britanniam parābat.

Meanwhile the Britons had sent a fleet and aid to the Belgae who were waging war against Caesar. Therefore, Caesar began preparing an attack against Britain.

[2] Differences in English and Latin word order

Caesar, ¦ postquam suās cōpiās ex Ītaliā dūxit, │ Caesar, after he had led his troops out of Italy …

Caesar, ¦ postquam gentēs multās vīcit, …  │ Caesar, after he had conquered many nations …

A more fluent rendering of the sentences in English would be:

After Caesar had led his troops out of Italy …

After Caesar had conquered many nations …

Latin, however, likes to keep the subject first at the beginning of the sentence.

[3] ablative of time when

annus tertius > annō tertiō: in the third year

annus quārtus > annō quārtō: in the fourth year

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Caesar, after he had led his troops from Italy, overcame the Helvetii; thence he expelled Ariovistus, who was the leader of the Germans, across the Rhine; In the third year, after he had built a fleet, he destroyed the ships of the Gauls. In the fourth year, when the Germans had sent aid to the Gauls and were constantly making attacks against the tribes of the Gauls, Caesar built a bridge over the Rhine. Caesar, after he had defeated many nations, burned the towns of the Germans and laid waste the fields. Meanwhile the Britons had sent a fleet and aid to the Belgae, who were waging war against Caesar. Therefore, Caesar was preparing [began preparing] an attack against Britain.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetii

Early 18^th century map of Transalpine Gaul, the location of the Helvetii to the right

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariovistus