03.05.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [12]; on water [ii]

[1] scapha, -ae [1/f]: skiff; light boat

(1) In translation, scapha may simply be rendered as ‘boat’ – but not ship, since the term does not convey a large vessel:

potuimus vix obtinēre scapham (Vulgate)

• we were able, with difficulty, to secure the boat

(2) Comenius (1685) uses scapha to describe a way in which sailors might escape from a ship-wreck i.e. in the equivalent of a lifeboat (illustrated below):

Quīdam ēvādunt, vel tabulā (7), ac ēnatandō, vel scaphā (8)

• Some escape, either on a plank, 7. and by swimming, or in the boat, 8.

This reflects the description given in Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Antiquities:

“A skiff or cutter carried on large vessels to be lowered for use as required” (Thurston Peck)

(3) Similarly, Caesar uses the term to refer to ‘skiffs’, small boats that are attached to larger vessels:

quod cum animadvertisset Caesar, scaphās longārum nāvium, item speculātōria nāvigia mīlitibus complērī iussit

• When Caesar had noticed this, he ordered the skiffs of the long ships, and likewise the reconnaissance vessels, to be filled with soldiers.

nāvigium speculātōrium: reconnaissance vessel

(4) This line from Plautus clearly indicates the difference in size:

Illa autem virgō atque altera itidem ancillula dē nāvī timidae dēsuluērunt* in scapham

* = desiluerunt

• The young girl, however, and another little maid likewise, both afraid, have leapt down from the ship into a little boat.

(5)

Intereā ex secundō commeātū quem ā Siciliā mīserat Aliēnus, nāvis ūna in quā fuerat Q. Cominius et L. Ticida equitēs Rōmānī, ab residuā classe cum errāvisset dēlātaque esset ventō ad Thapsōn, ā Vergiliō scaphīs nāviculīsque āctuāriīs excepta est et ad Scīpiōnem adducta. (Dē Bellō Āfricō)

• Meanwhile, from the second supply convoy which Alienus had sent from Sicily, one ship—in which the Roman knights, Quintus Cominius and Lucius Ticida, had been, since they had strayed from the rest of the fleet and had been carried by the wind toward Thapsus, was intercepted by Vergilius with skiffs and fast light-vessels, and brought before Scipio.

classis, -is [3/f]: fleet

commeātus, -ūs [4/m]: (supply) convoy

[2] cymba, -ae [1/f] / cumba, -ae [1/f]: small boat; dinghy

< Anc. Gk. κύμβη [kúmbē]: [i] hollow of a vessel: drinking cup, bowl; [ii] (Phoenician) boat.

Abī tū: appellant hūc ad mōlem nostram nāviculam . . . Tum interibi locī cōnscendō cumbam piscātōriam, . . . veniō, iacitur anchora, inhibent lēniter. (Afranius)

• Go on, you: they are bringing a small boat right here to our pier ... Then, meanwhile at that place, I board a fishing skiff ... I arrive; the anchor is cast; they gently row backwards."

mōlēs, -is [3/f]: (here) pier; jetty

[3] ratis, -is [3/f]: raft

hic subsecūtus quō modō trānsierit, utrum ratī an piscātōriō nāvigiō, nēmō sciēbat (Rufus)

• How this man, having followed closely, crossed over – whether by raft or by a fishing boat – no one knew

[4] lembus, -ī [2/m]: small fast boat; cutter

Note that, in all three quotations below, general reference is made to ships, but lembus is identified as a specific type. Some translations may not specifically convey this. However, I have consistently used ‘cutter’ to distinguish it from other ships.

(1) The size of the lembus in comparison with other large warships which could have up to four banks of oars is shown by Livy’s reference to this vessel’s limited number of oars:

nāvēs quās cīvitātibus maritimīs adēmisset redderet nēve ipse nāvem ūllam praeter duōs lembōs, quī nōn plūs quam sēdecim rēmīs agerentur, habēret (Livy)

He was to return the ships which he had taken away from the maritime states, and he himself was not to have any ship except two cutters, which were to be propelled by not more than sixteen oars.

(2) C. Popilius, …, postquam dēbellātum in Macedoniā et statiōne summōtōs hostium lembōs audīvit, dīmissīs et ipse Attalī nāvibus … nāvigāre Aegyptum pergit, … (Livy)

Gaius Popilius, … after he heard that the war in Macedonia had been brought to an end and the cutters of the enemy had been removed from their station, and once the ships of Attalus had been dismissed he himself proceeded to sail toward Egypt, …

maritimus, -a, -um: maritime; pertaining to the sea

rēmus, -ī [2/m]: oar

(3) The noun can be associated with pirate ships, fast and able to inflict damage:

From Plautus:

Nicobulus: Periī hercle, lembus ille mihi laedit latus.

• By Hercules, I’m ruined, that cutter is crashing into my side.          

Chrysalus: Is erat commūnis cum hospite et praedōnibus. …

• It was jointly owned by your friend and pirates. …

Chrysalus: Is lembus nostrae nāvī īnsidiās dabat.

• This cutter was lying in wait for our ship.

28.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [11]; on water [i]

The topic of shipping was covered extensively in earlier posts:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/topic%3A%20ships

15.06.25: topic; ships [1]; Comenius LXXXVIII; ships; a Galley (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/150625-topic-ships-1-comenius-lxxxviii.html

15.06.25: topic; ships [2]; Comenius LXXXVIII; ships; a Galley (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/150625-topic-ships-2-comenius-lxxxviii.html

15.06.25: topic; ships [3]; Caesar on shipbuilding

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/150625-topic-ships-3-caesar-on.html

18.06.25: topic; ships [4]; Comenius XC; a Merchant ship (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/180625-topic-ships-4-comenius-xc.html

18.06.25: topic; ships [5]; Comenius XC; a Merchant ship (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/180625-topic-ships-5-comenius-xc.html

20.06.25: topic; ships [6]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/200625-topic-ships-6-comenius-xci-ship.html

20.06.25: topic; ships [7]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/200625-topic-ships-7-comenius-xci-ship.html

23.06.25: topic; ships [8]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (3)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/230625-topic-ships-8-comenius-xci-ship.html

23.06.25: topic; ships [9]; Comenius; XCI; a Ship-wreck (4); terra austrālis: the southern land

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/230625-topic-ships-9-comenius-xci-ship.html

26.06.25: topic; ships [10]; Comenius; CXLII; the Sea-Fight

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/260625-topic-ships-10-comenius-cxlii.html

[1] nāvigium, -ī [2/n]: vessel; ship; boat i.e. a general term for any form of transport on water whether it be a ship with sails or a boat that is rowed. Translations will vary dependent upon context. All of the following are from Cicero’s correspondence with Atticus:

Dē puerīs quid agam? parvōne nāvigiō committam?  

• What shall I do about the boys? Shall I entrust them to a small boat?

Prōrsus dissolūtum offendī nāvigium vel potius dissipātum.

• In fact I found a ship breaking up, or rather already in wreckage

Nāvigia colligēbat

• He was collecting vessels

suntque nāvigia praetereā lūculenta

• and, besides, there are some excellent ships

In the same way that English distinguishes size (but not function) of a vessel by referring simply either to ship or boat, so too does Latin differentiate:

[2] nāvis, -is [3/f]: the general term for a ship although, dependent upon context, it may translate as ‘boat’ if a smaller vessel is being described:

Nāvis, quae in flūmine magna est, in marī parvula est (Seneca the Younger)

• A ship, which is big in a river, is tiny in a sea.

Latin will use adjectives to specify the functions of different types of large craft:

[3] nāvis onerāria: merchant / cargo ship

[4] nāvis longa: [lit: long ship] battle ship (especially with oars)

Here, Caesar refers to both types:

Nāvibus circiter LXXX onerāriīs coāctīs contractīsque, quot satis esse ad duās trānsportandās legiōnēs exīstimābat, quod praetereā nāvium longārum habēbat quaestōrī, lēgātīs praefectīsque distribuit.

• After about eighty transport ships had been assembled and brought together, which he considered sufficient for conveying two legions across, he assigned whatever warships he had besides to the quaestor, the legates, and the prefects.

[5] nāvis āctuāria: fast transport ship

Note in this excerpt how the transport ships are adapted for the purpose of a naval battle:

nāvibus āctuāriīs quārum numerus erat satis magnus, magnitūdō nēquāquam satis iūsta ad proeliandum, rōstra imposuit. (Bellum Alexandrinum)

• he fitted rams onto fast transport ships, of which there was a sufficiently large number, whose size was by no means adequate for fighting

rōstrum, -ī [2/n]: the protruding ‘beak’ at the prow of a Roman ship designed to inflict damage during a naval conflict

[6] nāvis piscātōria: fishing boat

deinde in piscātōriā quīdam nāve rētibus opertī circumvectīque ita ad castra Rōmāna conlocūtīque cum trānsfugīs

• Then, covered with fishing nets in a fishing boat, certain men were carried around in this way to the Roman camp and conferred with the deserters;

[7] nāvicula, -ae [1/f]: small ship; little boat i.e. the diminutive form of nāvis indicated by the suffix -cula

adulēscentulus cum nāviculīs cuiusquemodī generis XXX, inibi paucīs rōstrātīs, profectus ab Uticā in Maurētāniam (Bellum Africum)

• the young man set out from Utica to Mauretania with thirty small boats of every kind, including a few beaked ones among them.

rostrātus, -a, -um: fitted with a rōstrum (see [5] above)

22.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [10]: heavy duty vehicles (3) carrus

[3] carrus, -ī [2/m]: wagon; vehicle for transportation of freight

As we continue to move through the topic of transport, you will see that a mere dictionary definition – although sufficient for translation purposes – does not always convey nuance of meaning, but it may be determined when reading in context.

Its function is clearly indicated in this first quotation from Caesar’s description of the Gauls’ preparations for a departure, iūmenta referring to the animals that would pull the wagons:

auctōritāte Orgetorigis permōtī cōnstituērunt ea quae ad proficīscendum pertinērent comparāre, iūmentōrum et carrōrum quam maximum numerum coemere (Caesar)

• deeply moved by the authority of Orgetorix, they decided to prepare those things which pertained to setting out, [and] to buy up as great a number as possible of pack animals and wagons

The image of animals pulling cartloads of equipment generally conveys slow movement. However, in the following extract, the wagons are able to keep pace with troops that do not have heavy baggage:

magna enim multitūdō carrōrum etiam expedītōs sequī Gallōs cōnsuēvit (Aulus Hirtius)

• For a large multitude of wagons was accustomed to follow the Gauls, even when they were lightly equipped.

Most noticeably, this description does not convey a slow advance but one so deafening that it terrifies the Roman horses:

essedīs carrīsque superstāns armātus hostis ingentī sonitū equōrum rotārumque advēnit et īnsolitōs eius tumultus Rōmānōrum conterruit equōs (Livy)

• standing erect in chariots and wagons, armed enemies arrived with a mighty clattering of hoofs and wheels, frightening the horses of the Romans with the unfamiliar din.

In other words, unlike plaustrum and serrācum – both of which also refer to vehicles for freight transportation, but are not associated with any sense of ‘pace’ or speed – the carrus certainly appears to have had greater manoeuvrability.

21.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [9]: heavy duty vehicles (2) serrācum

serrācum (sarrācum), -ī [2/n]: cart; wagon

Why should an entire post be devoted to a single word? Serrācum, like plaustrum, is most often defined as a cart or wagon. It would be perfectly legitimate to leave it at that since it occurs infrequently. However, in ‘exploring’ vocabulary – especially everyday objects about which the Romans said little – the noun serves as an example of being circumspect when you read very specific definitions for which there is a dearth of evidence.

[i] There is some debate as to whether this type of cart was fundamentally different from the plaustrum.

In Vitruvius’ discussions on machines and implements he distinguishes between the plaustrum and the serrācum but without specifying what that distinction is:

portātiōnēsque eōrum nōn essent, nisi plostrōrum [ = plaustrōrum] seu serracōrum per terram, nāviculārum per aquam inventae essent māchinātiōnēs.

• ...and their transportation would not exist, unless the mechanisms of wagons or carts across land, and of small boats across water, had been invented.

[ii] It is suggested that its use was for transporting heavier payloads although we must be wary of assuming absolute distinctions when attested evidence is limited. Juvenal describes the traffic chaos caused by goods vehicles:

longa coruscat / serrācō veniente abiēs, atque altera pīnum / plaustra vehunt

• A long fir-tree sways as the cart approaches, and other wagons carry a pine tree

His reference to a long / tall fir-tree suggests that a larger, sturdier vehicle would be required, its bulk emphasised by the swaying motion. However, the choice of nouns may simply be adhering to the poetic metre

sēr-rā- | cō vĕ-nĭ- | ēn-t'ă-bĭ- | ēs, āt- | qu'āl-tĕ-ră | pī-nūm

plāus-tră vĕ- | hūnt ...

Juvenal is less concerned with specific function than with the creation of an overall effect. Describing the dangers of such freight traffic with high, bulky and precarious payloads, he continues:

nūtant altē populōque minantur. | they totter on high and threaten the people

nam sī prōcubuit quī saxa Ligustica portat axis / et ēversum fūdit super agmina montem, | for if the axle which carries Ligurian stones [ = marble] has broken and poured an upturned mountain on the crowds

quid superest dē corporibus? | what remains of the bodies?

[iii] The description of the devastating Antonine Plague from 165 – 180 AD does imply that mass transportation of human bodies would require a flatbed vehicle on four wheels to maximise stability. After all, nobody would have wished plague victims to be strewn over the streets:

Tanta autem pestilentia fuit ut vehiculīs cadāvera sint exportāta sarrācīsque. (Historia Augusta)

• ...and the plague was so great that bodies were carried out on carts and wagons

[iv] The following is a comment by Quintilian on a lost fragment of Cicero’s speech In Pisōnem:

An cum dīcit in Pīsōnem Cicerō 'cum tibi tōta cognātiō serrācō advehātur', incīdisse vidētur in sordidum nōmen, nōn eō contemptum hominis quem dēstrūctum volēbat auxisse?

• Or when Cicero, in his speech against Piso, says 'when all your relations are carted in a serrācum', does he appear to have fallen back on a vulgar word, and not rather to have increased thereby his contempt for the man whom he wanted to ruin?

i.e. the noun is used pejoratively to convey social distinction; a vehicle that is normally used for the transportation of heavy goods is transporting people.

[v] The following two quotations refer to Boötes.  Derived from Ancient Greek Βοώτης [Voótis], “the herdsman”, it is a large constellation in the northern sky.

Referring to the stars, Ovid describes them as plaustra i.e. as a yoked ‘team’ of carts being driven by ‘the herdsman’:

Tē quōque turbātum memorant fūgisse, Boōtē, quamvīs tardus erās et tē tua plaustra tenēbant. (Ovid)

• They say that you also fled in confusion, Boötes, even though you were slow and your wagons held you back.

Juvenal, however, portrays the stars in the same way as the slow, swaying wagon carrying a fir tree through crowded streets (see [ii] above). His use of serrāca is less elevated, emphasising the slow passage of time.

sīderibus dubiīs aut illō tempore quō sē / frīgida circumagunt pigrī serrāca Boōtae.

• when the stars are fading or when the cold carts of sluggish Bootes wheel round.

To conclude, we can see that a single word can be:

• open to multiple interpretations
• used both literally and metaphorically
• subject to overly confident and specific definitions

20.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [8]: heavy duty vehicles (1) plaustrum

plaustrum, -ī [2/n]: a two-wheeled or four-wheeled cart (plaustrum maius) / wagon with heavy solid wooden wheels and pulled by a pair of yoked oxen

Terram cariōsam cave nē ārēs, nēve plaustrum nēve pecus impellās; (Cato)

• Be careful not to plough crumbling / rotten soil, nor to drive a wagon or livestock over it;

Nunc quōquō veniās plūs plaustrōrum in aedibus videās quam rūrī, quandō ad vīllam vēnerīs (Plautus)

• Wherever you go these days, you see more wagons among city houses than in the country, when you visit a farm.

The wheels and axle were joined, revolving together that caused a creaking or screeching (strīdēns, -ntis) noise.

montīsque per altōs contentā cervīce trahunt strīdentia plaustra (Virgil)

• and across high mountains, with strained neck, they drag the creaking wagons

Note Virgil’s use of contentā and trahunt to convey that the wagon is a slow vehicle transporting heavy loads.

Ovid makes the same comment on the noise of the plaustrum:

...incūstōdītae dīripiuntur opēs, / rūris opēs parvae, pecus et strīdentia plaustra...

• ... unprotected wealth is plundered—the meager wealth of the countryside, the cattle, and the screeching wagons ...

16.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [7]: wheeled vehicles (7) raeda; Cicero and the defence of Milo [ii]

The following excerpt comes much later in Cicero’s speech, and invites the jury to picture the event and decide which description naturally fits an assassin. The focus is entirely on the visual.

Rēs loquitur ipsa, iūdicēs, quae semper valet plūrimum. Sī haec nōn gesta audīrētis, sed picta vidērētis, tamen appārēret uter esset īnsidiātor, uter nihil malī cōgitāret, cum alter veherētur in raedā paenulātus, ūna sedēret uxor. Quid hōrum nōn impedītissimum? vestītus an vehiculum an comes? quid minus prōmptum ad pugnam, cum paenulā inretitus, raedā impedītus, uxōre paene cōnstrictus esset?

The facts themselves speak, gentlemen of the jury, and they always carry the greatest weight. If you were not to hear these actions, but to see them depicted in a picture, it would nevertheless be clear which of the two was the ambusher and which was harbouring no evil intention, when one was being conveyed in a carriage, clad in a travelling cloak, with his wife sitting beside him. Which of these circumstances was not a very great hindrance? His clothing, his vehicle, his companion? What could have been less suited to a fight, when he was entangled in his cloak, impeded by his carriage, and almost bound fast by his wife?

Note:

[1] juxtaposition, placing two opposing ideas side-by-side, again creating the powerful antithesis evident in the first excerpt:

uter esset īnsidiātor, uter nihil malī cōgitāret

[2] rhetorical questions

Rhetorical questions do not invite answers since they are already obvious in context; rather, they are designed to persuade the jury mentally to reach their own conclusions.

Quid hōrum nōn impedītissimum?

vestītus an vehiculum an comes?

quid minus prōmptum ad pugnam, cum paenulā inretitus, raedā impedītus, uxōre paene cōnstrictus esset?

[3] Cicero’s use of the tricolon:

(1) vestītus (2) an vehiculum (3) an comes?

cum (1) paenulā inretitus, (2) raedā impedītus, (3) uxōre paene cōnstrictus esset

It could be argued that Cicero is using a tactic which, in our contemporary terms, is described as ‘anchoring’. The word is particularly associated with advertising and encourages consumers to focus on one striking feature of a product. Here, Cicero focuses on how the events look and on the circumstances pertaining to a specific part of the case to the exclusion of other factors that may be pertinent and not in his favour.

15.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [6]: wheeled vehicles (6) raeda; Cicero and the defence of Milo [i]

raeda, -ae [1/f] or rēda, -ae  [1/f]: a four-wheel wagon or coach used for long-distance travelling and / or carrying baggage

raedārius, -ī [2/m]: coachman; carriage driver

sed dum tōta domūs raeda compōnitur ūna / substitit ad veterēs arcūs (Juvenal)

• But while his whole household is being packed into a single carriage, he lingered at the ancient arches... 

Cicero and the defence of Milo

One of the tactics of a lawyer is to challenge the opposing case by introducing an element of scepticism, encouraging the jury to doubt whether the accusation has been proved or, in this case, is even logical given the circumstances.

In 52 BC, Milo was put on trial for killing his political enemy Clodius after a violent confrontation on the Via Appia. That Clodius had been killed by Milo's party was not really in dispute; the key question was whether the killing was justified. In his speech Pro Milone, Cicero argued that Clodius had planned an ambush and was the aggressor, while Milo had simply been travelling with his wife and attendants when the attack occurred. Cicero, therefore, claimed that Milo had acted in self-defence and that the killing was a legitimate response to a deadly threat.

As part of Cicero’s defence of Milo, he compares the readiness of both parties to engage in violence. He does this by means of carefully constructed antithesis. We will consider both statements:

[A] CLODIUS

Obviam fit eī Clōdius, (1) expedītus, (2) in equō, (3) nūllā raedā, nūllīs impedīmentīs, nūllīs Graecīs comitibus, (4) ut solēbat, sine uxōre, quod numquam ferē:

• Clodius meets him coming the other way, lightly equipped, on horseback, with no carriage, no baggage, no Greek attendants as he usually had, and without his wife, which was something he hardly ever did.

Notes:

(1) expeditus: lightly equipped, but does not suggest unarmed

(2) in equō: Clodius is on horseback i.e. unlike Milo, he could move quickly

(3) Cicero’s use of the tricolon (nūllā … nūllis … nūllīs…) to reinforce that Clodius was travelling unusually light

(4) ut solebat / sine uxōre quod numquam ferē; Cicero observes that the manner of Clodius’ appearance is out of character. Moreover, that his wife was absent might suggest that Clodius wished to avoid her witnessing a murder.

[B] MILO

cum hic (1) īnsidiātor, quī iter illud ad caedem faciendam (2) apparāsset, (3) cum uxōre veherētur in raedā, (4) paenulātus, magnō et impeditō et muliebrī ac dēlicātō ancillārum puerōrumque comitātū.

• While this ‘ambusher’, who had (supposedly) prepared that journey for the purpose of carrying out a killing, was being conveyed in a carriage with his wife, clad in a travelling cloak, with a large and cumbersome and womanish and delicate retinue of maidservants and boys.

Notes:

(1) Given Milo’s location in the carriage and its physical constraints, the term īnsidiātor is used sarcastically. He goes on to justify that sarcasm.

(2) cum … apparāsset: the use of the pluperfect subjunctive conveys what the prosecution has claimed; the translation of “supposedly had” neatly communicates scepticism

(3) [1] cum uxōre [2] veherētur [3] in raedā

[1] cum uxōre: Milo was with his wife, whereas Clodius was (unusually) not; the contrast of sine uxōre in [A] and cum uxōre in [B] could imply that Milo was unaware of what was to happen. 

[2] veherētur: it is appropriate to retain the passive meaning of the verb i.e. Milo was not involved in controlling the carriage; this could also contrast with obviam fit eī Clōdius, which presents Clodius as the one who comes to meet Milo, perhaps implying that it was Clodius who initiated the encounter.

[3] in raedā: Milo was in a carriage, whereas Clodius was on a horse

(4) Cicero emphasises that Milo was in no position to instigate any act:

[1] paenulātus: Milo is not dressed in a manner that would allow rapid movement

paenula, -ae [1/f]: a thick, sleeveless travelling cloak

“It was chiefly worn by people of low rank and slaves, but also by the higher classes, … in bad weather, on a journey, and in the country.” (Thurston Peck)

The image shows a statuette of a figure wearing a paenula (British Museum). In other words, if this is the type of apparel Milo was wearing, he hardly looked like a man who had set out prepared to commit a murder!

[2] [i] magnō et impeditō [ii] et muliebrī ac dēlicātō ancillārum puerōrumque comitātū

Cicero conveys two ideas in this heavily loaded statement, presenting the jury with an image of comfort and domesticity rather than a planned armed ambush:

[i] Milo’s retinue is large and cumbersome

Note the contrast between expeditus in [A] and impeditō in [B], the prefixes – both of which are stressed in pronunciation – changing the meaning.

[ii] Those around him are not the type who would be physically or emotionally capable of assisting him; while dēlicātus can translate as ‘luxurious’ it can equally mean ‘tender’ or ‘delicate’.

Note the use of comitibus in [A] and comitātū in [B], both referring to those who accompanied the travellers and reinforcing the contrast between the two parties.

10.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [5]: wheeled vehicles (5) carpentum [ii] the carpentum on the coins

The reference to the carpentum would have had cultural resonance amongst the ancient Romans. As a symbol of honour, it appeared on coins:

Image #1

22-23 AD: first depiction on a sestertius of a decorated carpentum drawn by a pair of mules

The coin refers to Livia, the wife of Augustus:

• S.P.Q.R IVLIAE AVGVST(ae); SPQR indicates that she is honoured by the Senate and the Roman people:

[i] Senatus Populusque Romanus

[ii] Iuliae Augustae: dative; honour given to her; IVLIA AVGVSTA were honorific titles given to her by Augustus

It was minted during the reign of her son Tiberius i.e. the immediate predecessor of Caligula:

• TI(berius) CAESAR DIVI AVG(usti) F(ilius) AVGVST(us) P(ontifex) M(aximus) TR(ibunicia) POT(estate) XXIIII (vicesima quarta) | Tiberius Caesar, son of the divine Augustus, Augustus, chief priest (Pontifex Maximus), holding tribunician power for the twenty-fourth time.

The coin’s production was authorised by the Senate:

• S(enatus) C(onsulto)

The coin is unlikely to be referring to her death, but to an illness from which she recovered and, in celebration of which, the Senate declared a holiday of thanksgiving.

Image #2

Bearing in mind that, as Suetonius describes, it was Caligula’s aim to reinstate his mother, there is a remarkable similarity in the design of this sestertius commemorating Agrippina the Elder, who had suffered owing to the actions of Tiberius. The coin was minted between AD 37 and 41.

[1] AGRIPPINA M(arci) F(ilia) MAT(er) C(aii) CAESARIS AVGVSTI | Agrippina, daughter of Marcus [Agrippa], mother of Gaius Caesar Augustus

[2] Unlike the previous coin, Agrippina’s image is distributed through currency circulation. In the same way that the ashes of Agrippina were brought to Rome at the busiest time of the day, the coin would have ensured maximium visibility.

[3] S P Q R MEMORIAE AGRIPPINAE | The Senate and People of Rome to the memory of Agrippina; again, there is official recognition of the status of Agrippina.

[4] The same (reversed) depiction of a decorated carpentum pulled by two mules, with its symbolic reverential significance.

What we see here is a physical reinforcement of Suetonius’ account: a deliberate piece of dynastic propaganda, confirming Caligula’s regime as a reversal of Tiberian repression, not unlike the commemorative coin issued by Brutus – with his portrait and its symbols of freedom from oppression – following the assassination of Julius Caesar.

10.04.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [4]: wheeled vehicles (4) carpentum [i] Caligula and the carpentum

(1) carpentum, -ī [2/n]: a two-wheeled carriage, covered by a canopy or curved roof and sometimes enclosed with curtains; used especially, but not exclusively, by high-ranking Roman women and also employed in grand funeral processions.

(2) Suetonius on the ‘showmanship’ of Caligula:

Caligula’s mother, Agrippina the Elder, and his eldest brother, Nero Julius Caesar, had been persecuted under the Emperor Tiberius, exiled to remote islands, and left to die in confinement, while public mourning for them was suppressed. Immediately upon his accession in 37 AD, the young Caligula sought both to strengthen his legitimacy and symbolically rehabilitate his family by recovering and publicly honouring the ashes of his mother and of Nero, thereby distinguishing his rule from the perceived cruelty of his predecessor.

… cōnfestim Pandateriam et Pontiās ad trānsferendōs mātris frātrisque cinerēs festīnāvit, tempestāte turbidā, quō magis pietās ēminēret, adiitque venerābundus ac per sēmet in urnās condidit; nec minōre scaenā Ōstiam praefīxō in birēmis puppe vēxillō et inde Rōmam Tiberī subvectōs per splendidissimum quemque equestris ōrdinis mediō ac frequentī diē duōbus ferculīs Mausōlēō intulit, īnferiāsque is annuā religiōne pūblicē īnstituit, et eō amplius mātrī circēnsēs carpentumque quō in pompā trādūcerētur.

He immediately hastened to Pandataria and the Pontian islands to transfer the ashes of his mother and brother, in a violent storm, so that his piety might be more conspicuous, and he approached with reverence, and placed the ashes in urns with his own hands; he brought them to Ostia with a flag fastened to the stern of the galley and then up the Tiber to Rome, borne on two biers to the mausoleum by the most illustrious in the equestrian order in the busy middle of the day. And he officially established rites in honour of the dead with an annual religious observance, and furthermore, circus games for his mother, and a ceremonial carriage in which she [i.e. her image] would be escorted in the procession.

(3)

[i] … cōnfestim Pandateriam et Pontiās ad trānsferendōs mātris frātrisque cinerēs festīnāvit, | he immediately hastened to Pandataria and the Pontian islands to transfer the ashes of his mother and brother,

[ii] tempestāte turbidā, | in a violent storm,

[iii] quō magis pietās ēminēret, | so that his piety might be more conspicuous

[iv] adiitque venerābundus | and he approached with reverence,

[v] ac per sēmet in urnās condidit; | and placed the ashes in urns with his own hands;

[vi] nec minōre scaenā | and with no less theatricality

[vii] Ostiam … intulit | he brought them to Ostia

[viii] praefīxō in birēmis puppe vēxillō | with an ensign / a military flag fastened to the stern of the galley [birēmis: specifically, a ship with two banks of oars]

[ix] et inde Rōmam Tiberī, |  and then up the Tiber to Rome,

[x] subvectōs per splendidissimum quemque equestris ōrdinis | (having been) borne by the most illustrious in the equestrian order,

[xi] mediō ac frequentī diē duōbus ferculīs Mausōlēō | on two biers to the mausoleum in the middle of the day [i.e. at the time when Rome would be the most crowded]

[xii] īnferiāsque is annuā religiōne pūblicē īnstituit, | and he officially established rites in honour of the dead with an annual religious observance,

[xiii] et eō amplius | and furthermore,

[xiv] mātrī circēnsēs | games in the circus for his mother,

[xv] carpentumque quō in pompā trādūcerētur. | and a carriage in which she [i.e. her image] would be escorted in the procession.

(4)

One feature of Classical Latin writing can be its intensity. There is nothing superfluous in Suetonius’ description of Caligula’s reverential treatment of the ashes. This is a calculated theatrical display, not only of personal grief but also of imperial power and state-sanctioned family rehabilitation.

[1] Displays of ‘filial duty’, personal grief and determination:

• personal retrieval of the ashes
• undeterred by a violent storm

Bear in mind that  - although Suetonius does not state it - adverse weather conditions could imply dissatisfaction on the part of the gods (a tactic of Tacitus). Likewise, the action could convey Caligula’s manic obsession.

• reverential behaviour
• collecting the ashes personally, a powerful image since the handling of human remains would have been shocking, a cause of religious pollution especially for a Roman of such high rank.

[2] Political and military recognition:

• ashes carried by equestrian knights
• a military flag (vexillum) on, given the context, a military ship (birēmis)
• official announcement of annual public acts of worship

[3] Maximum visibility for the Romans themselves:

• the transferring of the ashes by boat along the Tiber flowing through the centre of Rome
• the timing of the event: at noon when the streets of Rome would be packed
• the celebration of his mother at the most public of events, namely the games
• the transporting of his mother’s image in a luxury carpentum

[4] In his ‘asides’ Suetonius leaves us in no doubt that all of this was carefully planned to achieve a deliberate effect and was taken to its extreme:

quō magis pietās ēminēret, | so that his piety might be more conspicuous,

nec minōre scaenā | and with no less theatricality

et eō amplius | and furthermore,

30.03.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [3]: wheeled vehicles (3) currus [ii]

The divine status which the chariot could represent is illustrated by Ovid as he describes the chariot of the Sun. Phoebus has been warning Phaethon not to drive the sun chariot because the task is too dangerous. After finishing these warnings, he still reluctantly leads his son to the chariot.

[1] Fīnierat monitūs; dictīs tamen ille repugnat

• he had finished the warnings; but he (Phaeton) resists his words,

[2] prōpositumque premit flagratque cupīdine currūs.

• persists in his purpose, and burns with desire for the chariot.

[3-4] ergō, quā licuit, genitor cunctātus ad altōs / dēdūcit iuvenem, Vulcānia mūnera, currūs.

• Therefore, delaying as long as he could, the father leads the youth up to the lofty chariot, the gift of Vulcan.

[5-6] aureus axis erat, tēmō aureus, aurea summae / curvātūra rotae, radiōrum argenteus ordō;

• The axle was of gold, the pole of gold, the wheelrim of gold; the row of spokes of silver;

[7] per iuga chrȳsolithī positaeque ex ōrdine gemmae

• Chrysolites and gems placed along the yoke in order,

[8] clāra repercussō reddēbant lūmina Phoebō.

• gave a bright light from the reflected sun.

Note the following poetic features:

[i] metre: dactylic hexameter

(1) Fī-nĭ-ĕ | (2) rāt mŏ-nĭ- | (3) tūs; dīc- | (4) tīs tă-mĕn | (5) īl-lĕ rĕ- | (6) pūg-năt

(1) prō-pŏ-sĭ- | (2) tūm-quĕ prĕ- | (3) mīt flā- | (4) grātquĕ cŭ- | (5) pī-dĭ-nĕ | (6) cūr-rūs.

Dactylic hexameter comprises two possible rhythmic patterns:

[ — ◡ ◡ ]: dactyl; fī-nĭ-ĕ | rāt mŏ-nĭ- |

[ — — ]: spondee;  | -tūs; dīc- |

Each single pattern is known as a foot, six of which appear in a line, hence hexameter.

[ii] vowels lengthened by position:

Fī-nĭ-ĕ | rāt mŏ-nĭ- | tūs; dīc- | tīs tă-mĕn | īl-lĕ rĕ- | pūg-năt

prō-pŏ-sĭ- | tūm-quĕ prĕ- | mīt flā- | grātquĕ cŭ- | pī-dĭ-nĕ | cūrrūs.

Line 1: The /a/ of fīnierat is not naturally long, but in poetic metre, vowels are lengthened before 2 consonants:

fī-nĭ-ĕr- | āT Mŏ-nĭ - |

Similarly:

[l1] īL-Lĕ rĕ - |

[l2] prō-po-si-tūM-QUe

[l2] flā- | grāT-QUĕ cŭ-

[l7] gēM-Mae

[iii] elision: the vowel of -que is dropped before the vowel of the following word:

pēr iŭ-gă |  chrȳ-sŏ-lĭ- | thī pŏ-sĭ- | tāe-qu[e] ēx* | ōr-dĭ-nĕ |  gēm-māe | [*i.e. positaequ’ex]

[iv] poetic plurals: the use of a plural to refer to a singular noun is a feature of CL poetry, creating a more elevated tone

[ll3-4] ad altōs … currūs; the adjective clearly marks the noun as plural although only one chariot is being referred to

Compare line 2: flagratque cupīdine currūs where the same noun is being used as a genitive singular

flagratque cupīdine currūs | and burns with desire for the chariot.

[l4]: mūnera (rather than the singular mūnus)

[l8]: lūmina (rather than the singular lūmen)

As you explore Classical Latin poetry in greater depth, you will come across specific terms to describe poetic devices. There are many such terms and it is advisable to note them when they occur since they are consistently used. Two of them are in Line 5:

aureus axis erat, tēmō aureus, aurea summae / curvātūra rotae,

[i] asyndeton: the omission of conjunctions

[ii] polyptoton: words derived from the same root are used together i.e. aureus / aurea

Both features allow for a rapid accumulation of images, emphasising the quantity of gold and mirroring the way in which Phaeton’s eyes dart about upon seeing this treasure.

29.03.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [2]: wheeled vehicles (2) currus [i]

(1) Often reinforced by our contemporary movie makers, the image of the chariot epitomises velocity, volatility and power. However, it is an image that was already conveyed by Virgil:

saevit tōtō Mars impius orbe, | Wicked Mars rages throughout the whole world,

ut cum carceribus [i] sēsē effūdēre quadrīgae, |  just as when four-horse chariots have burst forth from the barriers,

addunt in spatia [ii], et frūstrā retinācula tendēns | they quicken their pace lap after lap, and, tugging vainly at the harnesses,

fertur equīs aurīga neque audit currus habēnās | the charioteer is swept along by the horses, nor does the chariot heed the reins.

currus, -ūs [4/m]: chariot

quadrīga, -ae [1/f]: chariot pulled by four horses

aurīga, -ae [1/m]: charioteer

Virgil associates the chariots and charioteers with the Circus Maximus:

[i] carcerēs: the enclosed starting stalls at the wide straight end of the Circus Maximus where each chariot team was held prior to the commencement of the race

[ii] spatium, -ī [2/n]: (here) one lap of a race; addunt in spatia is a compressed expression which would normally require a direct object such as gradum (pace) i.e. the horses are adding to the pace with every lap they run.

Note: alternating between ‘galloping’ dactyls [ — ◡ ◡ ] and ‘straining’ spondees [ — — ], the rhythm of the words in the final line literally mimics the erratic, terrifying speed of the runaway vehicle which the charioteer is attempting to control:

fēr-tŭr ĕ- | quīs āu- | rī-gă nĕ- | qu'āu-dīt | cūr-rŭs hă- | bē-nās

(2) The chariot is also associated with triumphal processions even if such processions were sometimes considered controversial. Here we have Livy’s description of the triumphant arrival of Camillus after the conquest of Veii in 396 BC in which he refers to the appearance of the chariot as a political flashpoint:

adventus quoque dictātōris omnibus ōrdinibus obviam effūsīs celebrātior quam ūllius unquam anteā fuit, triumphusque omnem cōnsuētum honōrandī diēī illīus modum aliquantum excessit. maximē cōnspectus ipse est, currū equīs albīs iūnctō urbem inuectus, parumque id nōn cīuīle modō sed hūmānum etiam vīsum. Iovis Solīsque equīs aequiperātum dictātōrem in religiōnem etiam trahēbant, triumphusque ob eam ūnam maximē rem clārior quam grātior fuit.

adventus quoque dictātōris 

• The arrival also of the dictator

omnibus ōrdinibus obviam effūsīs 

• with all classes having poured out to meet him

celebrātior quam ūllius unquam anteā fuit, 

• was more celebrated than that of anyone ever before,

triumphusque omnem cōnsuētum honōrandī diēī illīus modum aliquantum excessit. 

• and his triumph considerably exceeded the entire customary manner of honoring that day.

maximē cōnspectus ipse est, 

• He himself was the object of greatest attention

currū equīs albīs iūnctō urbem invectus, 

• borne into the city by a chariot yoked to white horses,

parumque id nōn cīvīle modō sed hūmānum etiam vīsum. 

• And it seemed not only uncharacteristic of a citizen but even a mortal man

Iovis Sōlīsque equīs aequiperātum dictātōrem in religiōnem etiam trahēbant, 

• They also interpreted it as an offense against religion that the dictator was made equal to the horses of Jupiter and the Sun,

triumphusque ob eam ūnam maximē rem clārior quam grātior fuit. 

• and for that one reason above all, the triumph was more spectacular than it was pleasing.

Triumph of Furius Camillus: Francesco Salviati (1545)