03.01.27: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXV [7] (1) impersonal passive; (2) connecting relative; (3) participial constructions; (4) subjunctive; (5) indirect statement

CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY; THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA [2]

Plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, tandem cōpiae adversae ad Pharsālum in Thessaliā sitam castra posuērunt. Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī quī veterānās legiōnēs quae Gallōs et Germānōs superāverant vehementer timēbant. Quōs ante proelium commissum Labiēnus lēgātus, quī ab Caesare nūper dēfēcerat, ita adlocūtus est: “Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum. Omnibus interfuī proeliīs neque temerē incognitam rem prōnūntiō. Perexigua pars illīus exercitūs quī Gallōs superāvit adhūc superest. Magna pars occīsa est, multī domum discessērunt, multī sunt relictī in Italiā. Hae cōpiae quās vidētis in citeriōre Galliā nūper cōnscrīptae sunt.” Haec cum dīxisset, iūrāvit sē nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum esse. Hoc idem Pompēius et omnēs reliquī iūrāvērunt, et magnā spē et laetitiā, sīcut certam ad victōriam, cōpiae ē castrīs exiērunt.

Item Caesar, animō ad dīmicandum parātus, exercitum suum ēdūxit et septem cohortibus praesidiō castrīs relictīs cōpiās triplicī aciē īnstrūxit. Tum, mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus, tubā signum dedit. Mīlitēs prōcurrērunt et pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxērunt. Neque vērō virtūs hostibus dēfuit. Nam et tēla missa sustinuērunt et impetum gladiōrum excēpērunt et ōrdinēs cōnservāvērunt. Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equitēs Pompēī aciem Caesaris circumīre cōnātī sunt. Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem, quae ad id tempus quiēta fuerat, prōcurrere iussit. Tum vērō integrōrum impetum dēfessī hostēs sustinēre nōn potuērunt et omnēs terga vertērunt. Sed Pompēius dē fortūnīs suīs dēspērāns sē in castra equō contulit, inde mox cum paucīs equitibus effūgit.

(1) review: impersonal passive

Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est | on both sides there was a long and fierce battle

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/impersonal%20passive

pugnō, -āre: fight; it is an intransitive verb, meaning that it cannot take a direct object. Other examples of intransitive verbs include:

currō, -ere: run

dormiō, -īre: sleep

eō, īre: go

veniō, -īre: come

Intransitive verbs cannot have passive forms with a subject e.g. *he has been slept*, *they were being run*. However, passive forms of intransitive verbs without a subject are used to convey impersonal ideas.

pugnātum est | literally: it was fought

Translations will vary but focus not on who performed the action, but on the action itself:

> There was fighting going on / people were fighting / ‘they’ fought / a battle was taking place

Pugnātum est ab utrīsque ācriter (Caesar)

• There was fierce fighting on both sides [ literally: ‘it’ was fought bitterly …]

Ea mē spectātum tulerat per Dionȳsia. postquam illō ventum est, iam, ut mē collocāverat, exorītur ventus turbō (Plautus)

• She had taken me to see (the show) at the Dionysiac festival. After we’d arrived there, just as she had settled me, a storm wind arose.

Ergō ex omnibus locīs urbis in forum curritur (Livy)

• Therefore, from all parts of the city people are running into the forum.

Macte novā virtūte, puer: Sīc ītur ad astra (Vergil)

• Be blessed in your new courage, boy; this is the way to the stars / one goes to … [literally: In this way it is being gone …]

Ad arma conclāmātum est (Livy)

• The cry ‘to arms!’ was raised.

Et Rōmam inde frequenter migrātum est, ā parentibus maximē ac propinquīs raptārum (Livy)

• And from there, there was frequent migration to Rome, especially by the parents and relatives of those / the women who had been abducted.

Magnīs opibus dormītur in urbe (Juvenal)

• Only with great wealth is it possible to sleep / do people sleep in the city.

(2) review: connecting relative pronouns

[i] Quōs … Labiēnus lēgātus … ita adlocūtus est:

[ii] Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, …

(3) review: participial constructions

[i] Pompēius dē fortūnīs suīs dēspērāns …

[ii] mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus …

[iii] plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, …

[iv] septem cohortibus … relictīs …

[v] pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxērunt …

[vi] tēla missa sustinuērunt …

(4) review: subjunctive

[i] Haec cum dīxisset, …

[ii] Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī …

(5) review: indirect statement

[i] Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum

[ii] iūrāvit sē … in castra nōn reversūrum esse

____________________

After several lighter engagements had been fought, at last the opposing forces pitched camp at Pharsalus, situated in Thessaly. Although Pompey’s army was twice as large as Caesar’s, there were nevertheless many who greatly feared the veteran legions that had defeated the Gauls and the Germans. Before the battle was joined, Labienus, the lieutenant who had recently defected from Caesar, addressed them as follows:

“Do not suppose that this is an army of veteran soldiers. I have been present at all the battles, and I do not rashly pronounce on a matter I do not know. A very small part of that army which defeated the Gauls still survives. A large part has been killed; many have gone home; many have been left behind in Italy. These forces which you see in Cisalpine Gaul have recently been levied.”

When he had said this, he swore that he would not return to camp unless as victor. Pompey himself and all the rest swore the same, and with great hope and joy, as though victory were certain, the troops marched out from the camp.

Caesar likewise, his mind prepared for battle, led out his army and, seven cohorts having been left behind to guard the camp, drew up his forces in a triple line. Then, as the soldiers were burning with eagerness to fight, he gave the signal with the trumpet. The soldiers charged forward and once the javelins had been thrown, drew their swords. Nor indeed did courage fail the enemy: they both withstood the missiles that had been hurled, met the assault of the swords, and kept their ranks. On both sides the fighting went on long and fiercely, and no one gave ground. Then Pompey’s cavalry tried to outflank Caesar’s line. When Caesar noticed this, he ordered the third line, which up to that time had been at rest, to charge. Then indeed the exhausted enemy could not withstand the attack of fresh troops, and all turned their backs. But Pompey, despairing of his fortunes, made his way on horseback to the camp, and soon afterwards fled from there with a few horsemen.

24.12.26: Level 3+ (review); Dooge LXXV [2] connecting relative

CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY; THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA [1]

Nē cōnfectō quidem bellō Gallicō, bellum cīvīle inter Caesarem et Pompēium exortum est. Nam Pompēius, quī summum imperium petēbat, senātuī persuāserat ut Caesarem reī pūblicae hostem iūdicāret et exercitum eius dīmittī iubēret. Quibus cognitīs rēbus Caesar exercitum suum dīmittere recūsāvit, atque, hortātus mīlitēs ut ducem totiēns victōrem ab inimīcōrum iniūriīs dēfenderent, imperāvit ut sē Rōmam sequerentur. Summā cum alacritāte mīlitēs pāruērunt, et trānsitō Rubicōne initium bellī cīvīlis factum est.

Italiae urbēs quidem omnēs ferē rēbus Caesaris favēbant et eum benignē excēpērunt. Quā rē commōtus Pompēius ante Caesaris adventum Rōmā excessit et Brundisium pervēnit, inde paucīs post diēbus cum omnibus cōpiīs ad Ēpīrum mare trānsiit. Eum Caesar cum septem legiōnibus et quīngentīs equitibus secūtus est, et īnsignis inter Caesaris comitātum erat Pūblius.

review: connecting relative

Quibus cognitīs rēbus …

Quā rē commōtus …

[1] A connecting relative pronoun is a relative pronoun (quī, quae, quod) used at the beginning of a new sentence to link it closely to the previous sentence. In this position it does not introduce a subordinate relative clause in the usual way, nor does it normally translate as “which” but instead continues the narrative by referring back to a person, thing, or idea already mentioned.

It is often rendered in English, depending on context, with a pronoun or demonstrative, for example:

[i] Caesar Rubicōnem trānsiit. [ii] Quī posterā diē adversus Rōmam profectus est.

• [i] Caesar crossed the Rubicon. On the next day [ii] he set out towards Rome.

[2] It is common in translation to connect the two sentences with ‘and’:

[i] Ancilla tandem advēnit. [ii] Quam ubi vīdī, laetissimus eram

• [i] The slave girl arrived. When I saw [ii] her, I was very happy, [or: The slave girl arrived, and when I saw her, …]

Frātrēs [i] amīcum suum vidēre voluērunt; [ii] quem cum vidēre possent, laetī erant.

• The brothers wanted to see their friend. (And) when they were able to see him, they were happy.

[3] In this example the connective relative quod does not refer to a neuter noun, but to the entire thought in the previous sentence.

[i] Imperātor interfectus est. [ii] quod cum mīlitēs vīdissent, fūgērunt.

• The commander was killed. (And) when the soldiers had seen this, they fled.

[4] In the extracts from this text, the connecting relative does not refer back to a specific noun but to an entire idea within the preceding sentence:

Nam Pompēius … senātuī persuāserat ut Caesarem reī pūblicae hostem iūdicāret et exercitum eius dīmittī iubēret. Quibus cognitīs rēbus …

• For Pompey had persuaded the Senate to declare Caesar an enemy of the state and to order that his army be disbanded. When these things had become known… [or: … and when these things had become known …]

Italiae urbēs quidem omnēs ferē rēbus Caesaris favēbant et eum benignē excēpērunt. Quā rē commōtus …

• Almost all the towns of Italy were favouring Caesar’s cause and received him kindly. Moved by this event (fact / matter) …

[5] Examples from earlier sections of the Dooge texts:

Exercitus … multīs perīculīs circumdatus est. Quae perīcula ut vītāret, …

• The army … is surrounded by many dangers. In order to avoid these dangers, …

Tandem … Pūblius, … nūntiāvit partem mūrī ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse. Quā rē audītā …

• Finally … Publius … reported that part of the wall, weakened by the blows of the battering ram, had collapsed. When this (thing / matter) was heard, …

Locus habēbatur idōneus castrīs quī facile dēfendī posset et prope aquam esset. Quā dē causā …

• A site was considered suitable for a camp which could easily be defended and was near water. For this reason, …”

Praesertim vērō ingentem silvam mīrābātur, quae tantae magnitūdinis esse dīcēbātur ut nēmō eam trānsīre posset, nec quisquam scīret aut initium aut fīnem. Quā dē rē plūra cognōverat ā mīlite quōdam …

• Above all, however, he was admiring a vast forest, which was said to be of such great size that no one could cross it, and that no one knew either its beginning or its end. About this matter he had learned more from a certain soldier …”

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/connecting%20relative

____________________

Even before the Gallic War had been brought to an end, a civil war broke out between Caesar and Pompey. For Pompey, who was seeking supreme command, had persuaded the Senate to declare Caesar an enemy of the state and to order that his army be disbanded. When these matters became known, Caesar refused to disband his army and, after urging his soldiers to defend a commander so often victorious from the wrongs of his enemies, ordered them to follow him to Rome. With the greatest eagerness the soldiers obeyed, and, once the Rubicon had been crossed, the beginning of the civil war was made.

Nearly all the towns of Italy, in fact, favoured Caesar’s cause and received him kindly. Moved by this, Pompey left Rome before Caesar’s arrival and reached Brundisium; from there, a few days later, he crossed the sea to Epirus with all his forces. Caesar followed him with seven legions and five hundred cavalry, and among Caesar’s entourage Publius was a notable figure.

28.08.26: Level 3; Reading (review); [33] [i] The magician Circe

Another episode of Odysseus’ journey home:

Ulixēs, postquam magnā cum audāciā diū per undās nāvigāvit, īnsulam Circae intrāvit. Ibi ille vir callidus nōnnūllōs sociōs in vīllam Circae mīsit. Quibus illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; venēnō domitōs in suēs mūtāvit. Ūnus ex iīs, quī venēnum negāverat, ēvāsit docuitque Ulixem. Quem Mercurius quoque dē dolīs Circae docuerat remediumque praebuerat et eī suāserat: “Hōc remediō ā mē datō perīculum dolōsque deae vītābis!” Quibus verbīs monitus Ulixēs illō remediō tūtus vīllam Circae intrāvit, Circam ipsam gladiō ursit, dolōs perniciōsōs eius arcuit. Iussit eam illōs sociōs iam in suēs mūtātōs rūrsus in virōs mūtāre. Sīc ūnā cum sociīs vīvus ex illā īnsulā ēvāsit.

Circa, -ae [1/f]: (alternative to Circē) name of a witch in Greek mythology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circe

venēnum, -ī [2/n]: (here) magic potion; poison

sūs, suis [3 m/f]: pig

[1] The connecting relative

[i] The following is incorrect in standard written English:

I bought a book. *Which I gave* to my brother.

English cannot begin a sentence with a relative pronoun that refers to something / someone in the previous sentence. The idea would be expressed in the following ways:

I bought a book which I gave to my brother [i.e. as one sentence, which introducing a subordinate clause]

I bought a book. I gave it to my brother. [i.e. two sentences; English would most commonly avoid repeating the noun by using a pronoun]

 I bought a book and I gave it to my brother [i.e. as one sentence with a coordinating conjunction]

[ii] Latin, however, can begin a sentence with the relatives quī, quae, quod referring to something / someone in the previous sentence, known in grammar as the antecedent:

Ibi ille vir callidus nōnnūllōs sociōs [antecedent] in vīllam Circae mīsit. Quibus [connecting relative] illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; …

Such sentences can be translated in different ways, the choice determined by style and context:

(a)   as separate sentences with the inclusion of a pronoun referring to the antecedent

There, that clever man sent some of his companions into her house. The goddess offered them wine mixed with poison; …

(b)   combining those sentences with ‘and’; that neatly conveys the “connecting” nature of quī, quae, quod

… and the goddess offered them …

(c)   a relative clause

… docuitque Ulixem [antecedent]. Quem [connecting relative] Mercurius quoque dē dolīs Circae docuerat …

… and informed Ulysses whom Mercury had also informed about Circe’s tricks, …

[iii] Translations are not always interchangeable; a common example is when the connecting relative refers to an entire preceding statement where a relative clause would sound clumsy:

“Hōc remediō ā mē datō perīculum dolōsque deae vītābis!” Quibus verbīs monitus Ulixēs …

 “With this remedy given by me, you will avoid the danger and the tricks of the goddess.” Having been warned by these words, Ulysses … [or: …, and having been warned …]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/connecting%20relative

[2] Taking care when translating:

Latin word order is far more flexible than English and so, when translating, be conscious of what is and is not acceptable in standard English translation:

Quibus illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; venēnō domitōs in suēs mūtāvit.

The goddess offered them wine mixed with poison; *having been subdued by the potion*, she changed them into pigs.

Although “having been subdued by the potion” is the correct translation, its position in the English sentence above would indicate that she had been subdued by the potion, which is incorrect. Rewording is needed to be clear who that phrase is referring to:

“… once / after / when they had been subdued by the potion, she changed them …”

____________________

Ulysses, after he had sailed for a long time over the waves with great boldness, entered the island of Circe. There that clever man sent some companions into Circe’s house. The goddess offered them wine mixed with a (magic) potion; after they had been subdued by the potion, she changed them into pigs.

One of them, who had refused the potion, escaped and informed Ulysses. Mercury also had warned him about the tricks of Circe, had provided a remedy, and had advised him: “With this remedy given by me, you will avoid the danger and the tricks of the goddess.”

(Having been) warned by these words, Ulysses, safe because of that remedy [ = protected by that remedy], entered Circe’s house, threatened Circe herself with his sword, and drove away / warded off her deadly tricks. He ordered her to change those companions, who had already been turned into pigs, back into men. Thus he escaped alive from that island together with his companions.

11.11.25: Level 3; Wild beasts [5] from the authors: Bread and panthers … without the panthers [2]; text, translation with accompanying notes to lines [1] – [5]

Scr. Romae iv Non. Sept. a. 703 (51). CAELIVS CICERONI S. ¦ M. CAELIUS RUFUS TO CICERO, Rome, 2^nd September, 51BC

[1] ferē litterīs omnibus tibi dē panthērīs scrīpsī. │ In almost every letter I have written to you about panthers.

[2] turpe tibi erit ¦ Patiscum Cūriōnī decem panthērās mīsisse, ¦ tē nōn multīs partibus plūrīs; │ It will be a disgrace to you ¦ that Patiscus has sent ten panthers to Curio, (and) ¦ that you haven’t (sent) many times more.

[i] mīsisse: to have sent; perfect active infinitive

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/07/191025-level-3-spartan-boys-contempt-of.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/020925-level-3-sonnenschein-pro-patria.html

[ii] Patiscus: research suggests that Patiscus was an agent working locally for Caelius to obtain panthers and, most likely, other exotic animals

[iii] Curiō i.e. Gaius Scribonius Curio: Roman politician

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Scribonius_Curio_(tribune_50_BC)

[3] quās ipsās Cūriō mihi et aliās Āfricānās decem dōnāvit │ and these very ones (i.e. beasts), as well as ten other African ones, Curio has presented to me,

quās: connecting relative; it starts the sentence and is referring back to something mentioned in the previous one. Therefore, it does not translate as ‘which’ but ‘And these … (i.e. the animals referred to in the earlier statement)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/270625-level-3-labours-of-hercules-iii.html [note (3)]

[4]  … nē pūtēs ¦ illum tantum praedia rūstica dare scīre. │ so that you don’t think ¦ that he only knows how to give (gifts of) estates in the country

[i] nē + the subjunctive: the subjunctive is used to express the purpose of an action i.e. x does something ¦ in order that / so that y may happen; when nē is included, it indicates a negative purpose i.e. something is done ¦ so that something does not happen

[ii] …illum … scīre; indirect statement

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/310825-level-1-readings-18-damocles.html

[5] tū sī modo memoriā tenueris et Cibyrātās arcessieris itemque in Pamphȳliam litterās miseris (nam ibi plūrīs cāpī aiunt), quod volēs efficiēs. │ If only you keep (this) in mind / remember (this) [ = literally: if you will have kept in mind], and send for [ = will have sent for] some (panthers) from Cibyra, and likewise send [ = will have sent]  a letter to Pamphylia – for they say they’re mostly captured there – you’ll achieve what you want.

[i] Note in this section the use of the future perfect tense which emphasises the completion of a future action; in English the literal translation sounds clumsy, but English can convey this idea e.g. If you paint the dining room by Tuesday, we can have the party = If you’ve painted the dining room = If you’ve got the dining room painted … i.e. English can use a present perfect tense to stress completion, whereas Latin uses the future perfect:

[ii] item: likewise

[iii] Pamphȳlia, -ae [1/f]: a region in Asia Minor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamphylia

image #1: 15^th century map showing Pamphylia

[iv] Cibyra, -ae [1/f]: a town in SE Asia Minor; also: Kibyra (Gk. Κίβυρα)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cibyra

image #2: the Roman theatre of Cibyra; if the panthers had been there, I wouldn’t have booked a seat on the front row!

Images #3 and #4: the stadium at Cibyra and a representation of a gladiatorial scene

27.08.25: Level 3; Sonnenschein; Prō Patriā [8]; Castellum Rutupīnum [6]

Temporibus antīquīs portus celeber hīc erat, cui nōmen erat Portuī Rutupīnō; nāvēs ex Galliā in Britanniam nāvigantēs ad hunc portum plērumque applicābantur. Nam omnium portuum Britannicōrum hic optimus erat. Castellum in lītore portūs stābat. Intrā mūrōs castellī est ārea lāta. In mediā āreā fundāmentum aedificiī antīquī vidēs, quod fōrmam crucis habet. Hodiē "Crux Sānctī Augustīnī" vocātur, sed temporibus Rōmānīs fundāmentum phārī erat, ut cūstōs castellī affirmāvit. Sub hāc cruce est aedificium subterrāneum, quattuor et quadrāgintā passūs longum; quod intrāvimus. Cēreōs in manū tenēbāmus, quōs cūstōs dederat; nam locus obscūrus erat. Ab hōc aedificiō cunīculus, in fōrmam quadrātam excavātus, sub magnam partem āreae pertinet.

Dum per cunīculum ambulāmus, amita mea "Cui erat ūsuī hic cunīculus?" inquit.

Et cūstōs sīc respondet: "Piget mē quod dē ūsū cunīculī nihil affirmāre possum. Ūsuī fortasse erat, sī castellum obsīdēbātur: ecce puteus altus, ex quō aqua praebērī poterat."

Postquam haec spectāvimus, iterum circum mūrōs ambulāvimus. Dum ad dextrum cornū castellī stāmus, patruus meus nōbīs reliquiās amphitheātrī Rōmānī mōnstrāvit, quod nōn procul aberat. Magna multitūdō nummōrum Rōmānōrum in castellō servantur; ex quibus ūnum mihi cūstōs vēnumdedit. Tum cūstōdem valēre iubēmus, et ad cēnam properāmus.

Notes:

[1] Difference in the meaning of quod between the first two extracts, and the third:

[i] In mediā āreā fundāmentum aedificiī antīquī vidēs, quod fōrmam crucis habet │ In the middle of the open area you see the foundation of a building which has the form of a cross.

[ii] Patruus meus nōbīs reliquiās amphitheātrī Rōmānī mōnstrāvit, quod nōn procul aberat. │ My uncle showed us the remains of the Roman amphitheatre which was not far away.

[iii] Piget mē quod dē ūsū cunīculī nihil affirmāre possum. │ It annoys me ¦ that I can state nothing about the use of the tunne; see previous post

[2] Examples of the dative of the relative pronoun:

[i] portus celeber hīc erat, cui nōmen erat Portuī Rutupīnō │ There was a famous port here [literally: to which was the name] > which had the name Portus Rutupinus; note that the name of the port is in the dative case, and that will be explained in the next post with further examples

[ii] Cui erat ūsuī hic cunīculus? │ To whom was this tunnel of use?

[3] Connecting relatives

When we see forms of quī, quae and quod, the immediate translation which comes to mind is ‘who’ or ‘which’; in grammar this is known as a relative pronoun as it is referring back to a person / thing in the same sentence (the antecedent) i.e. they introduce a relative clause.

Tum in [i] silvās [antecedent] ¦ [ii] in quibus leō habitabat [relative clause] ¦ statim iter fēcit. │ Then he immediately travelled into the [i] forests ¦ [ii] in which the lion lived.

[i] Omnēs [antecedent] ¦ [ii] quī eam regiōnem incolēbant [relative clause] ¦ erant laetissimī │[i] Everyone ¦ [ii] who inhabited that region ¦ was very happy.

However, the relative pronouns quī etc. can also start a sentence referring to [a] a specific person or thing in the previous sentence or [b] the entire idea of the previous sentence.

The relative pronoun, therefore, is making a connection with the preceding sentence which is why, in grammar, it is known as a connecting relative.

In this position it is not translated as “who” or “which” but by a pronoun or demonstrative that refers to the antecedent.

(a)

[i] Caesar Rubicōnem trānsiit. [ii] Quī posterā diē adversus Rōmam profectus est. │ [i] Caesar crossed the Rubicon. On the next day [ii] he set out towards Rome.

It is common in translation to connect the two sentences with ‘and’:

Caesar crossed the Rubicon, and he set out towards Rome on the next day.

[i] Ancilla tandem advēnit. [ii] Quam ubi vīdī, laetissimus eram │ [i] The slave girl arrived. When I saw [ii] her, I was very happy, or The slave girl arrived, and when I saw her, I was very happy.

[i] Ille servus effugit. [ii] Quem posteā captum graviter pūnīvī. │ [i] That slave escaped, and afterwards, when he had been caught [ii] I punished him severely.

(b)

In the following examples, the connecting relative does not refer to a specific noun, but to the entire statement made in the preceding sentence:

[i] Canis equum adiūvit. [ii] Quod ubi vīdimus, mīrātī sumus │ The dog helped the horse. When we saw that, we were amazed, i.e. the connecting relative is not referring to the dog or to the horse, but to the whole event.

Similarly:

[i] Mīlitēs nostrī omnēs effūgērunt. [ii] Quod ubi vīdimus, laetissimī erāmus. │ [i] All our soldiers escaped. [ii] When we saw that, we were very happy.

Note in the next example the inclusion of verbīs to indicate that the connecting relative is referring to something that was heard.

[i] Victōria tandem Rōmae relāta est. [ii] Quibus verbīs audītīs omnēs gāvīsī sumus. │ [i] The victory was finally reported in Rome, [ii] and with these words having been heard [= and when these words had been heard, we all rejoiced.

[i] Pȳthia iussit eum ad urbem Tiryntha discēdere et ibi rēgī Eurystheō sēsē committere. │ Pythia commanded him to depart to the city of Tiryns and there commit / entrust himself to Eurystheus.

> [ii] Quae ubi audīvit, Herculēs ad illam urbem statim contendit │ and when he heard these things Hercules immediately hurried to that city.

In the Sonnenschein text, there are examples of this. Most of them could be translated as a relative clause like all the others, but the inclusion of the semi-colon in the text also invites the translation of a connecting relative.

[1] Sub hāc cruce est aedificium subterrāneum, quattuor et quadrāgintā passūs longum; quod intrāvimus.

Beneath this cross is an underground building, 44 yards long, …

The translation could continue as either [i] … which we entered, or [ii] … and we entered it

[2] Magna multitūdō nummōrum Rōmānōrum in castellō servantur; ex quibus ūnum mihi cūstōs vēnumdedit.

A very large number of Roman coins are kept in the castle …

The translation could continue as either [i] … one of which the guard sold to me, or [ii] … and the guard sold one of them to me

From earlier parts of this text:

[a]

… posteā autem ipse aegrōtāvit et Eburācī exspīrāvit. Quō annō quīnquāgintā mīlia Rōmānōrum ā Calēdonibus trucīdāta fuisse narrantur. │ … but afterwards he himself also died in York. And in that year  50,000 Romans are said to have been slaughtered by the Caledonians.

[b]

[1] Et Antōnīnus Pius … alterum vallum in ipsā Calēdoniā … aedificāvit: [2] cui nōmen hodiernum est Graham's Dyke.

[1] And Antoninus Pius built a second rampart in Caledonia itself …

[2] [i] literally: to which the name today is … > … which today has the name …; [ii] … and its name today is … / … and today it has the name …

[c]

[1] Itaque necesse fuit Hadriānō … magnum illud vallum … aedificāre; [2] cuius reliquiae hodiē spectantur.

[1] Therefore, it was necessary for Hadrian to build that large rampart

[2] [i] … the remains of which are seen today; [ii] and its remains are seen today

The key point is to translate the relative pronoun into a grammatically correct English structure i.e. Latin can begin a sentence with the equivalent of ‘which’, whereas English cannot.

He told me he was leaving. *Which* wasn’t true. Latin can express it that way, but it is incorrect in English.

> He told me he was leaving, and it wasn’t true. / He told me he was leaving, which wasn’t true.

06.08.25: Level 3; Kings of Rome [2]; the new city; the omens; the slaying of Remus

Mox Rōmulus Remusque volēbant in [1] iīs locīs, ubi ēducātī erant, urbem condere. Hinc foedum certāmen ā mītī prīncipiō ortum est. Namque, quoniam geminī erant, aetās discrīmen inter eōs facere nōn poterat. [2] “Uter”, inquiunt, “nomēn novae urbī dabit? [2] Uter [3] conditam imperiō reget?”.

Deōs igitur auguriō cōnsulunt. [4] Cuius causā templa capiunt, Palātium Rōmulus, Remus Aventīnum. Priōrī Remō signum venit; [4] cui sex vulturēs cito appārent. [5] Hōc nūntiātiō, duodecim Rōmulō sēsē ostendunt. [6] [a] Utrumque rēgem [6] [b] suī comitēs salūtāvērunt. Tempore enim [7] illī, hī numerō avium rēgnum sibi vindicābant.

Inde cum magnīs clāmōribus [8] congressī, ad caedem vertuntur. [9] Lūdibriō frātris Remus novōs trānsiluit mūrōs. Statim ab īrātō Rōmulō ictus cecidit. Tunc ille, “Sīc”, inquit, “[10] pereat, quīcumque alius trānsiliet moenia mea”. Ita sōlus potītus est imperiō Rōmulus; condita urbs conditōris nōmine appellāta est.

Vocabulary

augurium, -ī [2/n]: augury, divination, omen

īcō, -ere, īcī, ictus [3]: hit, strike stab

lūdibrium, -ī [2/n]: mockery

mītis, -e: gentle, mild, peaceful

potior, -īrī, potītus sum [4/deponent]: take possession (of + ablative); potītus est imperiō

quīcumque, quaecumque, quodcumque: who(so)ever; what(so)ever

trānsiliō, -īre, -uī [4]: jump across

vindicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1] (often with sibi): lay claim

templum, -ī [2/n]: the most common meaning is ‘temple’ but, here, it refers to districts, the literal meaning of templum being  a ‘space marked off' i.e. by the augur's staff, for the purpose of taking omens. Hence it means 'sacred enclosure’ and then ' temple.'

Palātium: the Palatine; Aventīnum: the Aventine, two  of the seven hills on which Rome stood when complete.

Notes

[1] iīs = eīs

[2] uter: which (of two)?

“Uter … nomēn … dabit? │ Which (of the two) … will give the name?

“Uter … reget?”. │ Which (of the two) … will rule?

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/04/250725-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-6.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/907899478487988

[3] Uter conditam … reget? │ Which (of the two) will rule (the city) when / after it has been built?

condō, -ere, condidī, conditus [3]: establish, form, construct

The perfect passive participle conditam (having been constructed) refers to urbs in the previous sentence.

[4]

cuius causā │ and for this reason / because of this

cui sex vulturēs … appārent │ and two vultures … appear to him

connecting relatives

[5] hōc nūntiātiō │ with this having been announced = after this had been announced; ablative absolute

[6] [a] Utrumque rēgem [b] suī comitēs salūtāvērunt.

[a] uterque: both; each (of two)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/04/250725-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-61.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/907916665152936

[b] suī: the reflexive possessive adjective suus, -a, -um (his, her etc. own) is used to refer back to the subject in order to differentiate his (own) etc. as belonging to the subject as opposed to his i.e. somebody else’s.

Vir suōs servōs vocat │ The man calls his (own) slaves.

Vir servōs eius vocat │ The man calls his (somebody else’s) slaves.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/08/090924-level-1-ora-maritima-103-notes.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/512110881400185

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/280525-level-1-readings-12-15-review-3.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/775452408399363

In this sentence, however, suī comitēs is in the nominative case i.e. the subject, in order to emphasise that each king had his own group of comrades.

Example:

Sōcratem cīvēs suī interfēcērunt. │ Literally: His own fellow citizens put Socrates to death. > Socrates was put to death by his own fellow citizens.

Therefore:

Utrumque rēgem suī comitēs salūtāvērunt. │ Literally: His own comrades hailed each (of the two) as king. > Each of them was hailed as king by his own comrades.

[7] ille and hic and can be used to distinguish between two (groups of) people in a similar way to English ‘the former’ and ‘the latter’ i.e. the sentence refers to the two groups of supporters of Remus and Romulus respectively.

Six vultures appeared first to Remus. Twelve vultures then appeared to Romulus.

Tempore enim [7] illī, hī numerō avium rēgnum sibi vindicābant. │The former (i.e. the supporters of Remus) laid claim to the kingdom [claimed the kingdom for themselves] based upon (priority of) time, the latter (i.e. the supporters of Romulus) on the number of birds.  

[8] congressī │ having come together

congredior, congredī, congressus sum [3-iō / deponent]: come together, meet; deponent verbs have passive forms but active meanings

[9]  Lūdibriō frātris │ in mockery of (his) brother

The phrase ‘the love of a father’ – out of context – can have two meanings:

[i] a father’s love / the love felt by a father i.e. the father is the ‘possessor’ of the love

[ii] love for a father i.e. the father is the object of the love

English does not distinguish them, and neither does Latin, but [i] and [ii] have different grammatical names:

[i] amor patris: a father’s love / the love felt by a father = subjective genitive i.e. it is the father who loves

[ii] amor patris: the love for a father = objective genitive i.e. it is the father who is being loved

Despite the differences in terms, the meaning is generally clear in context:

Lūdibriō frātris [objective genitive] │ in mockery of (his) brother i.e. it is Remus who is mocking, and Romulus who is the object of that mockery

[10] Sīc … pereat, quīcumque alius trānsiliet … │ May he perish in this way, whoever else will jump (jumps) across …

The subjunctive is soon to be discussed in detail. For now, simply note this example of its many uses: the jussive subjunctive from the verb iubeō, -ēre, iussī, iussus [2]: command; the jussive subjunctive is similar to the imperative (command) form of the verb. However, whereas the imperative is only giving a command directly to one or more people, the jussive subjunctive can refer to any person or number, often translated into English as ‘may / let somebody (do something)’

vivat rēx! │ long live the king! [literally: may the king live]

vīvant professōrēs! │ long live the professors! [ = may the professors live]

Tū quoque salvus sīs, Bernarde. │ May you also be well, Bernard.

[11] condita urbs conditōris nōmine appellāta est; these texts are adaptations from the work of Livy. However, the origin of the city’s name is unclear. The proper noun Romulus is in itself formed from Rōma + ulus i.e. the proper noun is derived from the name of the city, not vice-versa.

See ‘etymology’ at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome

03.08.25: Level 3; Kings of Rome [1]; Birth and early years of Romulus and Remus

Rea Silvia, [1] Albāna sacerdōs, [2] geminōs puerōs ēdidit. Amūlius, rēx crūdēlis, Silviam in cūstōdiam dedit; [3] puerōs in prōfluentem aquam mittī iussit. forte eō tempore super rīpās Tiberis effūsus erat. itaque in proximā eluvie puerī sunt expositī. paulisper alveus, in quō [4] iacent, hūc illūc fluitat. tandem tenuis aqua eōs in siccō dēstituit. simul lupa sitiēns ex montibus, quī circā sunt, ad puerīlem vāgītum cursum flexit. mox eam linguā lambentem puerōs Faustulus, magister rēgiī pecoris, invēnit; [6] quī Lārentiae uxōrī eōs ēducandōs dedit. ita genitī nūtrītīque sunt Rōmulus et Remus. posteā, iam adultī, vēnandō saltūs peragrant. hinc rōbur [7] corporibus animīsque sūmunt. nec iam ferās tantum agitant; sed in latrōnēs praedā onustōs faciunt impetūs. [8] pāstōribus rapta dīvidunt, et cum hīs sēria ac iocōs peragunt.

Vocabulary

agitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1] (here): hunt, chase, pursue

alveus, -ī [2/m]: basket

dēstituō, -ere, dēstituī, dēstitūtus [3]: place, set; abandon

effundō, -ere, efffūdi, effūsus [3]: pour out

ēluviēs, -ēī [5/f]: flood

fera, -ae [1/f]: wild animal, beast

flectō, -ere, flexī, flexus [3]: bend, deviate, turn

fluitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: float

gignō, -ere, genuī, genitus [3]: bear, beget, give birth

iocus, -ī [2/m]: joke, pastime, sport

lambō, -ere, lambī, lambitus [3]: lick, lap

nūtriō, -īre, nūtrī(v)ī, nūtrītus [4]: feed, breastfeed, suckle, nurse

onustus, -a, -um: loaded [+ abl. with]

paulisper: for a little while / short time

pecus, pecoris [3/n]: herd, flock; a collective term that can refer to any (large) group of animals

peragō, -ere, perēgī, perāctus [3]: (here) accomplish, carry out

peragrō, -āre, -āvī, -agrātus [1]: wander / travel through

prōfluēns, -entis: flowing

raptum, -ī [2/m]: plunder, prey

rēgius, -a, -um: royal

saltus, -ūs [4/m]: (here) forest / mountain pasture; the noun can refer to a mountain / narrow pass

siccus, -a, -um: dry

tenuis, -e: (here) shallow, but often has the meaning of ‘thin’, ‘delicate’

vāgītus, -ūs [4/m]: crying, wailing

Notes

[1] Albana: 'belonging to Alba.' The full name of the city was Alba Longa, 'the Long White City.' It was long and narrow, owing to the steepness of the mountain-side on which it was built. Alba was the head of the league of Latin towns, till Rome conquered her own mother-city and took her place. The exact site of Alba is unknown.

[2] geminōs puerōs: according to the legend, Mars was the father of the twins

[3] (i) puerōs in prōfluentem aquam (ii) mittī [present passive infinitive] iussit │ he ordered [i] the boys [ii] to be thrown / flung / cast into the flowing water

[4] iacent; fluitat: historic presents; used to produce a more vivid picture, a greater sense of immediacy

[5] eam … Faustulus … invēnit; quī Lārentiae uxōrī eōs ēducandōs dedit

Two separate points:

[i] eam … Faustulus … invēnit; quī Lārentiae … dedit │ Faustulus found it; and he gave them to Larentia …

quī: connecting relative

Unlike English, quī, quae, quod (who, which) can begin a sentence referring to someone / something in the previous one, and is usually translated as and he, she …

[ii] quī Lārentiae uxōrī eōs ēducandōs dedit │ and he gave them to his wife Larentia to be brought up

ēducandus, -a, -um: a gerundive meaning to be brought up

English would most often use a passive infinitive to express this idea i.e. he gave them to Larentia ¦ to be brought up. Latin, however, uses the gerundive like an adjective agreeing with the noun / pronoun which is affected by the action:

quī Lārentiae uxōrī eōs [accusative plural] ēducandōs [accusative plural] dēdit

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/08/260924-level-2-ora-maritima-24-and-25-6.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/080625-level-3-gerundive-5-purpose.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/808706941740576

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/797022766242327

Examples:

deinde [i] eum … [ii] redūcendum Faleriōs puerīs trādidit

> literally: He handed [i] him ¦ [ii] (who was) to be taken back to Falerii ¦ to the boys

> he then handed [ii] him to the boys [ii] to be taken back to Falerii

Caesar pontem faciendum cūrat (Caesar) │ Caesar causes a bridge to be made

[6] vēnandō saltūs peragrant │ they wander through the forests hunting

vēnandum: an example of the gerund i.e. (the act of) hunting

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/270525-level-3-gerund-1.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/775441468400457

venandō: ablative of manner

[7] rōbur corporibus animīsque sūmunt │ they draw (their) strength for (their) bodies and minds

corporibus animīsque: datives of advantage i.e. who or what benefits from an action

[8] pāstōribus: among the shepherds

puerōs in prōfluentem aquam mittī iussit

01.07.25: Level 3; the Labours of Hercules; [IV] Slaying the Lernean Hydra

[IV] SLAYING THE LERNEAN HYDRA

Deinde Herculēs ab Eurystheō iussus est Hydram occīdere. Itaque cum amicō Iōlāō contendit ad palūdem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolēbat. Hoc autem mōnstrum erat serpēns ingēns quae novem capita habēbat. Mox is mōnstrum repperit et summō cum perīculō collum eius sinistrā manū rapuit et tenuit. Tum dextrā manū capita novem abscidere incēpit, sed frustra labōrābat, quod quotiēns hoc fēcerat totiēns alia nova capita vidēbat. Quod ubi vidit, statuit capita ignī cremāre. Hōc modō octō capita delēvit, sed extrēmum caput vulnerārī nōn potuit, quod erat immortāle. Itaque illud sub ingentī saxō Herculēs posuit et ita victōriam reportāvit.

[1] Iōlaō, abl. of Iolaus, the hero's best friend.

[2] palūs, palūdis [3/f]: marsh; swamp

[3] reperiō, -īre, repperī, repertus [4]: find (out); discover

[4] … quotiēns hoc fēcerat totiēns alia nova capita vidēbat.

… however often / however many times (whenever) he did that, just as often he would see other new heads.

[5] … quotiēns hoc fēcerat totiēns alia nova capita vidēbat. Quod ubi vidit, … │ … however many times he did that, just as often he would see other new heads. And when he saw that, ….

Refer to the previous post on connecting relatives; quod is not related to a specific person or thing in the previous sentence but to the action described i.e. the continual regrowth of the heads.

[6] extrēmum caput vulnerārī nōn potuit │ the furthest head could not be injured

vulnerarī: passive infinitive

27.06.25: Level 3; the Labours of Hercules; [III] Hercules becomes subject to Eurystheus; he strangles the Nemean lion

[III] HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS; HE STRANGLES THE NEMEAN LION

Itaque Herculēs Pȳthiae tōtam rem dēmōnstrāvit nec scelus suum abdidit. Ubi iam Herculēs finem fēcit, Pȳthia iussit eum ad urbem Tiryntha discēdere et ibi rēgī Eurystheō sēsē committere. Quae ubi audīvit, Herculēs ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheō sē in servitūtem trādidit et dīxit, "Quid prīmum, Ō rēx, mē facere iubēs?"

Eurystheus, quī perterrēbātur vī et corpore ingentī Herculis et eum occīdī studēbat, ita respondit: "Audī, Herculēs! Multa mira nārrantur dē leōne saevissimō quī hōc tempore in valle Nemaeā omnia vāstat. Iubeō tē, virōrum omnium fortissimum, illō mōnstrō hominēs līberāre." Haec verba Herculī maximē placuērunt. "Properābō," inquit, "et pārēbō imperiō tuō." Tum in silvās in quibus leō habitabat statim iter fēcit. Mox feram vidit et plūris impetūs fēcit; frūstrā tamen, quod neque sagittīs neque ūllō aliō tēlō mōnstrum vulnerāre potuit. Dēnique Herculēs saevum leōnem suis ingentibus bracchiīs rapuit et faucīs eius omnibus vīribus compressit. Hōc modō brevī tempore eum interfēcit. Tum corpus leōnis ad oppidum in umerīs reportāvit et pellem posteā prō veste gerebat. Omnēs autem quī eam regiōnem incolēbant, ubi fāmam dē morte leōnis ingentis accēpērunt, erant laetissimī et Herculem laudābant verbīs amplissimīs.

[1] Tyrins; this is an example of a Greek-type noun; some of these nouns have case endings that are originally from Greek or the Greek ending is an alternative to the Latin:

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Tiryns

Notes on Greek-type nouns:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/06/080824-level-2-practice-in-reading.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/473759851901955/

[2] Eurystheus was king of Tiryns, a Grecian city, whose foundation goes back to prehistoric times.

[3] Quae ubi audīvit │ and when he heard these things

When we see forms of quī, quae and quod, the immediate translation which comes to mind is ‘who’ or ‘which’; in grammar this is known as a relative pronoun as it is referring back to a person / thing in the same sentence (the antecedent) i.e. they introduce a relative clause.

Tum in [i] silvās [antecedent] ¦ [ii] in quibus leō habitabat [relative clause] ¦ statim iter fēcit. │ Then he immediately travelled into the [i] forests ¦ [ii] in which the lion lived.

[i] Omnēs [antecedent] ¦ [ii] quī eam regiōnem incolēbant [relative clause] ¦ erant laetissimī │[i] Everyone ¦ [ii] who inhabited that region ¦ was very happy.

However, the relative pronouns quī etc. can also start a sentence referring to [a] a specific person or thing in the previous sentence or [b] the entire idea of the previous sentence.

The relative pronoun, therefore, is making a connection with the preceding sentence which is why, in grammar, it is known as a connecting relative.

In this position it is not translated as “who” or “which” but by a pronoun or demonstrative that refers to the antecedent.

(a)

[i] Caesar Rubicōnem trānsiit. [ii] Quī posterā diē adversus Rōmam profectus est. │ [i] Caesar crossed the Rubicon. On the next day [ii] he set out towards Rome.

It is common in translation to connect the two sentences with ‘and’:

Caesar crossed the Rubicon, and he set out towards Rome on the next day.

[i] Ancilla tandem advēnit. [ii] Quam ubi vīdī, laetissimus eram │ [i] The slave girl arrived. When I saw [ii] her, I was very happy, or The slave girl arrived, and when I saw her, I was very happy.

[i] Ille servus effugit. [ii] Quem posteā captum graviter pūnīvī. │ [i] That slave escaped, and afterwards, when he had been caught [ii] I punished him severely.

(b)

In the following examples, the connecting relative does not refer to a specific noun, but to the entire statement made in the preceding sentence:

[i] Canis equum adiūvit. [ii] Quod ubi vīdimus, mīrātī sumus │ The dog helped the horse. When we saw that, we were amazed, i.e. the connecting relative is not referring to the dog or to the horse, but to the whole event.

Similarly:

[i] Mīlitēs nostrī omnēs effūgērunt. [ii] Quod ubi vīdimus, laetissimī erāmus. │ [i] All our soldiers escaped. [ii] When we saw that, we were very happy.

Note in the next example the inclusion of verbīs to indicate that the connecting relative is referring to something that was heard.

[i] Victōria tandem Rōmae relāta est. [ii] Quibus verbīs audītīs omnēs gāvīsī sumus. │ [i] The victory was finally reported in Rome, [ii] and with these words having been heard [= and when these words had been heard, we all rejoiced.

In the text we are dealing with (b) i.e. the connecting relative referring to the whole preceding sentence.

Pȳthia iussit eum ad urbem Tiryntha discēdere et ibi rēgī Eurystheō sēsē committere. │ Pythia commanded him to depart to the city of Tiryns and there commit / entrust himself to Eurystheus.

> Quae ubi audīvit, Herculēs ad illam urbem statim contendit │ and when he heard these things Hercules immediately hurried to that city.

[4] eum occīdī studēbat │ was eager for him to be killed

occīdī: present passive infinitive

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/110125-level-2-passive-voice-19-present.html 

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/644124801532125/

[5] illō mōnstrō hominēs līberāre │ to free people from that monster; the ablative of separation

neque ūllō aliō tēlō mōnstrum vulnerāre potuit │ nor was he able to wound the monster with any other weapon

[6] ūllus, -a, -um: any

[7] alius, -a, -ud: other

[8] prō: instead of