NOTE: work in progress (01.08.26); more verbs will be added
There are very few verbs in Latin that are classified as
irregular. Take a close and careful look at the first table rather than being
overwhelmed by it. The table will show you the concepts on which the formation
of the irregular verbs is based.
[1] volō, velle: want; be willing
The irregularity of volō, velle (want; be
willing) does not lie primarily in its individual forms, but in the stems
it uses to form the different tenses. The present tense of the indicative is
completely irregular; it cannot be predicted. However, all other forms – once
the stems are known – are conjugated in exactly the same way as any other verb.
The same patterns are also evident in:
[2] nōlō, nōlle: not want; be unwilling
[3] mālō, mālle: prefer
[4] sum, esse, fuī, futūrus: be
Again, the irregularity of the verb is in its stems rather
than the endings. The present indicative is completely irregular although it
still uses the personal endings. Other forms of esse are based upon single
stems to which personal endings are added.
Note:
[i] imperative forms
[ii] the fourth principal part which commonly occurs
[iii] there is no present active participle
[5] possum, posse, potuī: be able; can
The origins of this verb can be traced to two separate
words: potis (able) + esse (to be). The words merged and the
result is a verb that is an ‘extension’ of sum, esse formed from:
[i] a stem: pos- / pot-, and [ii] forms of esse
[6] ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus: carry; bear
[i] The most common meaning of ferō is
‘carry’ or ‘bear’ something. However, it has a wide range of additional
meanings, especially in compound forms. Links to the posts are here:
[ii] When learning Latin, it is crucial not to attempt to amass too much information at once, nor – when faced with what initially appears as a staggering number of forms – to overinterpret the irregularities.
[iii] Below are reference tables. However, ferō is
classified as irregular from two perspectives.
The four principal parts are:
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus
We will look at these separately, i.e. (1) those forms of
the verb with the root fer-, and (2) those with the roots tul-
and lāt-
(1) It is a 3rd conjugation verb, with slight
irregularities in spelling in certain forms that are conjugated with fer-:
infinitives: the -e- of the 3rd conjugation
infinitive is omitted
- ferre; ferrī
present tense: omission of -i- in the 2nd and
3rd person singular, and the 2nd person plural
- ferō, fers, fert, ferimus, fertis, ferunt
imperatives: all are formed from fer, for example:
- fer (singular); ferte (plural)
The imperfect and future tenses are completely regular, all
based upon the stem fer-
All forms of the present, imperfect and future passive are
regular with the one exception of the 2nd and 3rd person
singular present:
- ferris; fertur
Those variations are highlighted in yellow in the tables.
(2) Going beyond this, we find that ferō, ferre
is a rare example of a suppletive verb. This refers here to a
verb, certain forms of which are from a completely different verb. The most
notable example of this in English is the verb ‘go’:
I go / am going / have (had) gone / will go: all of these
are from Old English gān (go)
But: I went; even though Old English had a past
tense for the verb gān i.e. iċ ēode, this was replaced by
the past tense of a completely different verb: OE wendan (to
depart; go; change) i.e. iċ wende > Modern English: I went.
The verb ferō has undergone a similar
change sharing its perfect stem and perfect passive participle with the verb tollō,
tollere, sustulī, sublātus [3]: remove;
take away
3rd principal part: tulī > perfect stem: tul-
All forms are highlighted in green in the table.
4th principal part: listed in dictionaries as
either lātus (the perfect passive participle) or lātum (the supine)
All forms are highlighted in blue in the table.
However, all verb forms which are based upon these two stems are regular.
[7] eō, īre, iī / īvī, itum: go
Eō, īre
– and its compounds – are high frequency words.
The irregularity of the verb is
in its stems which are most often a single vowel. Once you are familiar
with the stems, the conjugation of the verb is straightforward.
Note: Active forms of the
verb are very common and part of the core vocabulary of Latin. Passive forms
of the verb are rare and very restricted in their usage. Therefore, all passive
forms will be discussed separately.
Part One [image #1]: indicative
active
[i] Present tense
eō [stem: e- + personal ending: ō]
is [stem: i- + personal ending: s]
it [stem: i- + personal ending: t]
īmus [stem:
ī- + personal ending: mus]
ītis [stem:
ī- + personal ending: tis]
eunt [stem:
eu- + personal ending: nt]
[ii] Imperfect and future tenses
single stem vowel: ī- + 1st / 2nd imperfect tense and future tense endings:
- imperfect: ībam, ībās etc.
- future: ībō, ībis etc.
[iii] Perfect tense stems
[a] single vowel: i- +
perfect tense endings
However, note the spelling
changes marked with an asterisk:
(1) iī [perfect stem i-
+ perfect tense ending -ī]
* (2) īstī
[perfect stem i- + perfect tense ending -istī, but the two vowels
merge > īstī]
Note: iistī is sometimes attested, especially in the work of Plautus:
- Strēnuē mehercle iistī.
- Bis periistī?
- Iamne abiistī?
(3) iit [perfect stem i-
+ perfect tense ending -it]
(4) iimus [perfect stem i-
+ perfect tense ending -imus]
* (5) īstis [perfect stem i-
+ perfect tense ending -istis, but the two vowels merge > īstis]
Note: iistis is
sometimes attested, especially in the work of Plautus:
- Iam vōs rediistis in concordiam?
- Ā mē magnam iniistis grātiam.
(6) iērunt [perfect stem i-
+ perfect tense ending -ērunt]
[b] perfect stem: īv- +
the perfect tense endings
These forms do not occur as often
with the verb eō, īre; in Classical literature, some do not exist
at all, but are used in later Latin. However, they are used as perfect tense
endings for 4th conjugation verbs throughout the Classical period.
īvī | audīvī
īvistī | audīvīstī
īvit | audīvit
īvimus | audīvimus
īvistis | audīvistis
īvērunt | audīvērunt
[iv] Pluperfect and future
perfect tenses
[a] perfect stem: i- +
pluperfect / future perfect endings
[b] perfect stem: īv- +
pluperfect / future perfect endings
pluperfect: ieram, ierās
etc. | īveram, īverās etc.
future perfect: ierō, ieris
etc. | īverō, īveris etc.
Part Two [image #2]: subjunctive
active
[i] Present tense
Stem ea- / eā- +
personal endings
eam, eās
etc.
[ii] Imperfect tense
Formed in the same way as any
other verb i.e. infinitive [īre- / īrē-]+ personal endings
īrem, īrēs
etc.
[iii] Perfect and pluperfect
tenses
These are formed with the same
stems as the indicative forms.
[a] perfect stem i- +
perfect / pluperfect subjunctive endings
[b] perfect stem īv- + perfect / pluperfect subjunctive endings
- perfect: ierim, ierīs etc. | īverim, īverīs etc.
- pluperfect: iissem, iissēs [or: īssem, īsset | īvissem, īvissēs etc.
Part Three [image #3]: non-finite
forms; active
(1)
[i] present active participle
nominative singular / neuter accusative singular: iēns;
all other forms: eunt-
iēns, euntis: [who is / while] going
Postrīdiē iēns ad Brūtum in Nēsidem haec scrīpsī
(Cicero)
- On the following day, while on my way to visit Brutus [literally: while going to Brutus] at Nesis, I wrote this.
Quārē, sī sapiet, viam vorābit | Therefore, if he is wise,
he will devour the road
quamvīs candida mīliēs puella | Although, a thousand times, a dazzling girl
euntem revocet | Should call him back as he is going
(Catullus)
In Ītaliam euntibus omnibus ad mē litterās dabis
(Cicero)
- Please give letters to me to all who are on their way [lit: going] to Italy.
[ii] future active participle
Formed regularly from the 4th principal part:
itūrus, -a, -um: about to go
Quid nunc? itūru's [ = itūrus es] an nōn?
(Plautus)
- What now? Are you going to go or not?
Dicātur sānē ēiectus esse ā mē, dum modo eat in
exsilium. Sed mihi crēdite, nōn est itūrus. (Cicero)
- Let it be said, by all means, that he was cast out by me, provided that he goes into exile. But believe me, he is not going to go.
Sī itūra sit Athēnās, … (Plautus)
- If she were about to go to Athens …
(2) gerund
[no nominative form]; gen: eundī; dat: eundō; acc:
eundum; abl: eundō: [the act of] going
Dārēus signō ad eundum datō currum prīstinō mōre
cōnscendit. (Curtius Rufus)
- Once the signal to advance [lit: for going] was given, Darius mounted his chariot according to ancient custom.
Nec eundō nec manendō īnsidiās ēvītō. (Livy)
- Neither by going nor by staying do I avoid treachery.
Nunc ad conloquium eundō temptāvī pācem (Livy)
- Now, by going to a meeting, I tried to achieve peace.
(3) supine
accusative: itum; ablative itū
The supine forms of eō, īre are usually listed
in conjugation tables, but with little, if any comment made.
https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/supine
However, rather than engaging in evasive tactics, we will discuss
it.
The supine of any Latin verb has two specific functions:
[i] with verbs of motion to express purpose, for example:
Vēnērunt pācem petītum | They came to seek
peace.
[ii] in the ablative case with certain adjectives to convey in
what respect that adjective applies, for example:
mīrābile audītū | wonderful to hear
[wonderful > with regard to what?]
[i] A construction with a verb of motion + itum does
not make sense because movement is already conveyed in the main verb, for
example:
Vēnērunt pācem petītum | They came to seek
peace.
Dormītum eō | I go to sleep.
Therefore, *vēnērunt itum* = They came to go, or: *eō
itum* = I go to go, are incorrect; the supine is redundant since
it would create tautology i.e. the unnecessary repetition of concepts.
[ii] The nuance of the second function of the supine is
passive:
facīle factū | easy to do [easy to be done]
*facile itū* does not mean ‘easy to go’; an awkward
literal rendering is akin to ‘easy to be gone’. It would be equally incorrect.
At this level, it is a prime example of the need to tread
carefully when dealing with the conjugation tables, and not assume that every
form commonly occurs. Indeed, a form may be included for the sake of
completeness with no attestation in the Classical Latin language.
Itum does occur elsewhere – and is discussed in a
later section – but it is not functioning as a supine.
(4)
[i] present active infinitive
īre: to go
mihi necesse est īre hinc (Plautus)
- It’s necessary for me to go from here.
[ii] perfect active infinitive
Perfect stem i- or īv- + -isse
īsse [i + i > ī- ]: to have gone
īvisse; forms with īv- are very rare
The uncontracted form iisse is not
attested apart from in compounds, for example: abiisse; adiisse;
exiisse; trānsiisse
ūnum īsse diem sine sōle ferunt (Ovid)
- They say that one day went by without the sun [literally: … one day to have gone without the sun]
Quam cum hīc vōbīs audientibus dīxerō, īsse, redīsse
mē putātōte (Cicero)
- When I have stated it to you in your hearing, consider that I have gone and returned [literally: Consider me to have gone and (to have) returned].
[iii] future active
infinitive
itūrus, -a, -um + esse: to be about to
go
Note that Roman authors frequently omit esse:
Putō mē ergō itūrum et inde Rōmam (Cicero)
- I think, therefore, that I shall go, and from there to Rome.
Statim ait sē itūrum (Cicero)
- He says that he will go at once.
et sē postrīdiē māne ad tē itūrum esse
dīxisset (Cicero)
- and he had said that he would go to you early the next morning
(5) active imperatives
[i] present (by far the most common)
2nd singular (a single vowel): ī! | go!
2nd plural (regularly formed with the addition of
-te): īte! | go!
Ī in mālam crucem (Plautus)
- Go to the devil! / Go and be hanged! / Go crucify yourself! [literally: Go onto a bad cross]
Īte intrō cito (Plautus)
- Go inside quickly!
[ii] future
The use of future active imperatives is discussed here:
https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/future%20active%20imperative
2nd singular / 3rd singular: ītō!
2nd plural (rare): ītōte!
Note the use of two future imperatives:
Meā quidem hercle causā līber estō atque ītō
quō volēs (Plautus)
- By Hercules, as far as I’m concerned, be free, and go where you like.
Ītōte extemplō domum (Plautus)
- Go home immediately!
3rd pl: euntō
This is a good example where a form may be listed for the
sake of ‘completeness’ although there are no attested examples in Classical
Latin literature. However, it does occur with compounds of the verb.
The quotations below well illustrate the use of the future
imperative to refer to an action that should always be done e.g. in legislative
language. The translation of ‘they shall’ is not describing a specific
instance, but a generalised instruction that applies at all times:
Ad dīvōs adeuntō castē (Cicero)
- They shall approach the gods in purity.
Imperia, potestātēs, lēgātiōnēs, … ex urbe exeuntō
(Cicero)
- Those with full power, civil authorities and ambassadors shall leave the city.
Domum cum laude redeuntō (Cicero) | They
shall return home with honour.
- Sacra sollemnia obeuntō (Cicero) | They shall perform the sacred rites.
Part Four [image #4]: passive
forms
Passive forms of eō, īre
only occur in the 3rd person singular and are impersonal constructions.
[i] The literal meaning of, for example, ītur is ‘it
is (being) gone’ i.e. not *it is going*. This makes no sense in English
and has to be rendered in various ways depending upon context e.g. people
go. Below are some examples:
(1) sīc ītur ad astra
- in this way one reaches the stars / one journeys to the stars
(2) ībātur in eam sententiam (Cicero)
The context is a senatorial debate concerning the
prosecution of Publius Clodius during which senators could informally stand
next to the speaker they wished to support.
- ‘They’ / the senators were crossing the floor in support of that view [or: The senators were coming over to that view.]
(3)
ībitur igitur (Cicero)
- So I shall go.
sī tū iubēs, em, ībitur tēcum (Plautus)
- If you order me to — there, I’ll go with you.”
Although translations may ‘personalise’ the verb, it has a
more ‘detached’ nature along the lines of: “It’s time to go” or “So, off we
go.”
(4)
itum est in cōnsilium (Cicero)
- (in the context of a trial) ‘they’ went / the judges went into deliberation
Nōn est itum obviam (Cicero)
- Nobody has come to meet (him)
(5) tunc Caesar: 'eātur,' inquit (Suetonius)
- then Caesar said: “Let us go.”
(6) sī post Kalendās Iānuāriās in cōnsilium īrētur
(Cicero)
- if after the Kalends of January they should go into deliberation
[ii] īrī: used with the supine of a verb to create the
future passive infinitive
Addit etiam sē prius occīsum īrī ab eō quam mē
violātum īrī (Cicero)
- He even adds that he himself will be killed by him before I will be harmed.
[iii] eundum: the future passive participle (the
gerundive) conveys necessity or obligation. If expressed, the
person to whom that necessity applies is in the dative case. There are numerous
examples in Cicero’s correspondence:
Eundum igitur est
- It is, therefore, necessary to go [ = I have to go / set out]
Mihi Arpinum eundum est
- I have to go to Arpinum.
quoniam est Cȳzicum nōbīs
eundum
- since ‘we’ [ = I] have to go to Cyzicus
Ex illīus sermōne statuam, Arpīnumne mihi eundum sit
an quō aliō (Cicero)
- From Caesar's conversation I shall decide whether I ought to go to Arpinum or elsewhere.
Scrībis enim in eā epistulā … in Asiam tibi eundum esse
tē arbitrārī (Cicero)
- For in the letter … you say you think you will have to go to Asia.
[iv] The conjugation table shows the passive forms. Since
the passive of eō, īre is an impersonal construction, only neuter
forms exist.
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