Topic / Level 4; clothing; Neo-Latin [1] Comenius (1658) LXXIII: The Shoemaker | Sūtor
The aim of the Neo-Latin sections is to provide vocabulary
that can be used actively to talk about your own experiences. The challenge is
particularly acute when describing clothing owing to the significant changes in
style over centuries since the Roman period.
“And let the things named them be shewed, not only in the
Picture, but also in themselves; for example, the parts of the body, clothes,
books, the house, utensils, &c.” (Comenius)
We’ll take a look at how Comenius described shoes – not Roman,
but 17th century – to his pupils.
the shoemaker | sūtor
maketh slippers | cōnficit crepidās (sandalia)
shoes | calceōs
(in which is seen | in quibus spectātur
above, the upper-leather, | superne, obstrāgulum
beneath, the sole, | īnferne, solea
and on both sides | et utrinque
the latchets)* | ānsae)
boots | ocreās
and high shoes | et pērōnēs
of leather | ē coriō
* see notes
This passage shows the different approaches to Neo-Latin.
We have original Classical Latin nouns that still convey
contemporary ideas:
sūtor, -ōris [3/m]: shoemaker
calceus, -ī [2/m]: shoe
corium, -ī [2/n]: leather; animal skin
Comenius wants to make a distinction between a shoe (calceus)
and a ‘slipper’, a low soft shoe that can be easily removed. He provides two:
crepida, -ae [1/f]: type of Greek
shoe; sandal
sandalium, -ī [2/n]: sandal; slipper
It is clear that Comenius wanted his pupils to have very
specific illustrations of the differences in clothing as they understood them
and to select vocabulary that would achieve this. He refers to two different
types of boot, one of which is translated as ‘high shoe’. The original
illustration – and authentic 17th century examples in the images
below – show a difference.
pērō, -ōnis [3/m]: boot; the noun is rare in
CL but was discussed in an earlier post and certainly refers to a boot, but unlikely
to have been as ‘high’ as the one Comenius had in mind.
ocrea, -ae [1/f]: again, a word previously
discussed in the military context, a greave, a metal leg-protector,
especially the shin
sinistrum crūs ocreā tēctum (Livy)
the left leg protected by a greave
By the Middle Ages, the word is used more generally to
describe a leather legging or boot. In the images from the Royal Armoury –
collectively named as ‘cavalier’ boots – the ones that reach the shin exactly
match the Comenius illustration and his description of them as ocreae.
However, in another chapter, he does use the same word when describing a
soldier’s armour: ocreae ferreae | iron leg-pieces (CXXXIX)
It is an example of semantic shift, where the word
acquires an additional meaning and / or is reinterpreted to convey a specific
idea and distinguish it from others.
For every topic, Comenius aimed to give all possible
vocabulary associated with it. Indeed, the same chapter continues with words
related to the shoemaker’s tools, but that is beyond our scope. Here, he refers
to parts of the shoe and, to describe the sole, uses:
solea, -ae [1/f]: sole; in ancient Rome,
this was commonly used to refer to the sole of a shoe with a strap across
the instep i.e. a sandal, a synonym for both crepida and sandalium.
However, it also originally described the sole of an animal, and certainly by
the Mediaeval period, the sole of the shoe. Of course, the Modern English noun
is derived from Old French sole < La: solea
Neo-Latin: solum, -ī [2/n]: sole (of shoe or foot) <
(CL) [i] bottom, ground; [ii] sole of the foot
https://neolatinlexicon.org/latin/sole/
He is also faced with the challenge of describing contemporary
‘latchet shoes’, with straps on either side and fastened over the instep with a
ribbon or buckle, i.e. they are what the 17th century school pupils would
have commonly seen; the images show examples of them from 1630. He describes
the ‘latchets’ as ānsae.
(CL) ānsa, -ae [1/f]: [i] handle e.g. of a jug; [ii]
(rarer) “the loop on the edge of a sandal, through which the shoetie was drawn”
(Lewis & Short)
[i] ansa ostiī (Petronius): the handle of a door
[ii]
Quīnquāgēnās ānsulās cortīna habēbit in
utrāque parte, ita īnsertās ut ānsa contrā ānsam veniat, et
altera alterī possit aptārī. (Vulgate)
The curtain shall have fifty (little) loops / eyelets
on each side, inserted in such a way that one eyelet comes against eyelet
[ = one eyelet comes against / touches another], and one (curtain) can be
joined to the other.
feruntque reprehēnsum ā sūtōre, quod in crepidīs
ūnā pauciōrēs intus fēcisset ānsās (Pliny the Elder)
And they say that he was blamed by a cobbler because in
(drawing) the sandals he had represented the loops in them as one
too few.
Commenting on this quotation, the archaeologist Stefan
Krmnicek writes:
“The anecdote also tells us that the crepida had loops
on which the leather straps were fastened. The loops were called ansae
or ansulae … The straps were called obstragula (fastening
straps), likely connected with the verb obstringere (to tie firmly).”
obstrāgulum, -ī [2/n]: a flat leather fastening
strap; Hoole, the translator of Comenius’ work, describes this as the “upper
leather”, which forms part of the integrated design. The shoes from 1630
clearly show that construction.
quīn et pedibus, nec crepidārum tantum obstrāgulīs,
set tōtīs socculīs addunt (Pliny the Elder)
And they even use them on their feet, and fix them not only to
the fastening straps of their sandals but all over their slippers.
What we have here is an educator who thought carefully about
his work. He wanted his pupils to use Latin in their world, and to name and
describe with as much precision as possible the objects they saw around them. Even
in our modern techno-savvy world, finding quotations and aiming for such
precision remains time-consuming. Therefore, in his 17th century
world reliant on books, quills, ink and candles, he should be praised for his
dedication.
We may talk about how the meanings of words change over time,
but it is interesting to compare the image of a shoemaker in 1554 with the
illustration from Comenius’ work a century later (which I have made clearer but
not altered); nothing had changed.
Topic / Level 4;
clothing; Neo-Latin [2] Comenius (1658) LXII: The Taylor | Sartor [1]
text and translation
Considering the use of Latin in 1658 may shed little light
upon the Romans, but quite a lot about the Renaissance. We will look at the way
in which Comenius distinguishes items of 17th century clothing.
Therefore, we need to consider not only his choice of Latin vocabulary, but the
clothing designs of that period which are often very different from our own.
Furthermore, Charles Hoole, the translator of Comenius’ work, may give English
meanings which are not so clear to us now.
We will begin with the text and translation of the entire
text. The image is an enhanced (but unchanged) version of the original
illustration which can be very difficult to decipher. The image is your
reference point for subsequent posts when the text will be divided into
sections and discussed in depth.
[1]
the taylor, 1. cutteth │ sartor, 1. discindit
cloth, 2. with shears, 3. │ pannum,
2. forfice, 3
and seweth it together with a needle and double thread,
4. │ cōnsuitque acū & fīlō duplicātō, 4.
then he presseth the seams with a pressing-iron,
5. │ posteā complānat sūtūrās ferrāmentō, 5.
[2]
and thus he maketh │ sīcque cōnficit
coats, 6. │ tunicās, 6.
with plaits, 7. │ plicātās, 7.
in which the border, 8. is below │ in quibus īnfrā est fimbria,
8.
with laces, 9. │ cum īnstitīs, 9.
cloaks, 10. │ pallia, 10.
with a cape, 11. │ cum patagīō, 11.
and sleeve coats, 12. │ & togās manicātās,
12.
doublets, 13. │ thōrācēs, 13.
with buttons, 14. │ cum globulīs, 14.
and cuffs, 15. │ & manicīs, 15.
[3]
breeches, 16. │ caligās, 16.
sometimes with ribbons, 17. │ aliquandō cum lemniscīs,
17.
stockins, 18. │ tībiālia, 18.
gloves, 19. │ chirothecās, 19.
muntero caps, 20. &c. │ amīculum,
20. &c.
[4]
so the furrier │ sīc pelliō
maketh furred garments │ facit pellicia
of furs. │ ē pellibus.
Topic / Level 4;
clothing; Neo-Latin [3] Comenius (1658) LXII: The Taylor | Sartor [2]
section (1)
[1]
the taylor, 1. cutteth │ sartor, 1. discindit
cloth, 2. with shears, 3. │ pannum,
2. forfice, 3
and seweth it together with a needle and double thread,
4. │ cōnsuitque acū & fīlō duplicātō, 4.
then he presseth the seams with a pressing-iron,
5. │ posteā complānat sūtūrās ferrāmentō, 5.
____________________
[1]
[i] acus, -ūs [4/f]: needle; pin
[ii] fīlum, -ī [2/m]: thread
[iii] forfex, -icis [3/f]: pair of scissors; shears
[iv] pannus, -ī [2/m]: cloth
[v] sartor, -ōris [3/m]: tailor
[vi] sūtūra, -ae [1/f]: sewing together; seam; suture
< suō, -ere, suī, sūtus [3]: sew
et est nōn simplicis habēnae, ut Baliārica
aliārumque gentium funda, sed triplex scūtāle, crēbrīs sūtūrīs dūrātum
(Livy)
and it is not composed of a single strap, like the Balearic
sling and that of other nations, but the thong is triple, strengthened with
numerous seams
Rara autem calvaria solida sine suturis est
(Celsus)
It is rare for the skull to be solid without sutures.
[vii] ferrāmentum, -ī [2/n]: used to refer to a wide
range of tools made of, or pointed with, iron, especially agricultural objects
In a sense, we still face the same “brick wall”? What do we
use to press clothes? An iron!
See what they saw …
When dealing with his labelling of clothes, it is useful to see objects and depictions, as the pupils themselves envisaged them.
Topic / Level 4;
clothing; Neo-Latin [4] Comenius (1658) LXII: The Taylor | Sartor [3]
section (2)
[2]
and thus he maketh │ sīcque cōnficit
coats, 6. │ tunicās, 6.
with plaits, 7. │ plicātās, 7.
in which the border, 8. is below │ in quibus īnfrā est fimbria,
8.
with laces, 9. │ cum īnstitīs, 9.
cloaks, 10. │ pallia, 10.
with a cape, 11. │ cum patagīō, 11.
and sleeve coats, 12. │ & togās manicātās,
12.
doublets, 13. │ thōrācēs, 13.
with buttons, 14. │ cum globulīs, 14.
and cuffs, 15. │ & manicīs, 15.
____________________
[2]
[i] pallium, -ī [2/n]: cloak; in ancient Rome it could
refer to a Greek style of cloak
In English the pallium can describe a liturgical
garment worn by the Pope and conferred on Archbishops by the Pope. The image
gives details. However, that is a very narrow definition compared to Comenius’
use of the noun.
[ii] tunica, -ae [1/f]; the dictionary definition of tunica
can appear misleading: “an under-garment of the Romans worn by both
sexes, a tunic” (Lewis & Short)
This may suggest to a modern reader that it was a type of underwear.
However, the tunica was the garment worn under, for example, a cloak or
toga – and it could also be worn alone.
tunica propior palliō est (Plautus)
the tunic is closer (to my skin) than the cloak
In other words, when relaxing at home, a Roman senator was not
wearing his toga candida, i.e. his status symbol, nor was a general
wearing his paludamentum: both may simply have been wearing a tunica.
We must be wary of applying our contemporary understanding of
English words to what the translator had in mind. Rather than a specific type
of heavy garment which we would wear in, for example, cold weather, it is
applied more generally here to an everyday main garment, not necessarily with
sleeves.
[iii] tunicae plicātae: the translator describes the
coats as ‘plaited’ / having ‘plaits’ which, today, we associate with plaited
hair, but it also can refer to pleats, i.e. the fold in
the fabric of a garment < plicō, -āre [1]: fold
[iv] Two words for ‘sleeve’ were discussed in an earlier post:
- manulea, -ae [1/f]: long sleeve
(reaching to the hand)
- manuleātus, -a, -um: having
long sleeves
Here, we have:
manica, -ae [1/f]: sleeve; (CL) “a sleeve
worn either separately or sewn to the tunic” (Thurston Peck)
The noun manica is rendered as ‘cuff’, not specifically
the small cuffs at the end of a formal shirt, but a longer, possibly
detachable, sleeve end that could extend from the hand to the upper arm. The
German edition of Comenius’ work which predates the English translation renders
manica as Ermel / Modern German: Ärmel (sleeve)
manicātus, -a, -um: with
sleeves
[v] toga manicāta: a coat with sleeves; the use
of ‘toga’ suggests something more than merely a ‘coat’ or, indeed, a cloak.
The images from HABITUS ACADEMICI IN UNIVERSITATE
CANTABRIGIENSI (1690) clearly show academic ‘robes’ or ‘gowns’, one
specifically labelled as: toga colōris violāceī | a ‘toga’ (gown / robe)
of a violet colour. However, Comenius does not use the word only in that narrow
sense. In his earlier work (Janua Linguarum Reserata; 1643) he refers to a toga
tālāris: a gown reaching to the ankles.
[vi] thōrāx, -cis [3/m]: [i] (anat.) breast, chest,
thorax; [ii] breastplate
However, the following quotation shows that is not confined to
armour:
hieme quaternīs cum pinguī togā tunicīs … et thōrāce
lāneō … mūniēbātur (Suetonius)
In winter he protected himself with four tunics and a heavy
toga, … and a woollen chest-protector …
Comenius uses the noun to refer to a doublet, a
close-fitting men’s jacket worn from the 15th century
- (Neo-L) thōrāx, -cis lāneus [3/m]: cardigan; woollen sweater
[vii] (CL) globulus, -ī [2/m]: a little ball,
the diminutive of globus, -ī [2/m]: any round object; (Neo-L):
button
[viii] fimbria, -ae [1/f]: fringe; border; edge; we
have already seen this noun in the context of Petronius’ description of
Trimalchio:
fimbriīs hinc atque illinc pendentibus
with fringes hanging here and there
[ix] īnstita, -ae [1/f]: (CL) the border of a Roman
lady’s tunic; in the text, the ‘laces’ are not shoe-laces, but decorative woven
bands or braids stitched flat onto the hem and borders as trimming.
[x] with a cape, 11. │ cum patagīō, 11.
We may imagine Batman, the “caped crusader” wearing a sleeveless
short / mid-length cloak hanging from the neck over the back, arms, and
shoulders. However, the German version of Comenius work, which predates the
English edition, renders the noun as Kragen: collar.
The noun patagīum, -ī [2/n] refers to a broad stripe on
a woman’s tunic; it is very rare and only attested a few times in Classical
Latin.
The Roman grammarian Festus (2nd cent. AD)
described it:
patagīum est, quod ad summam tunicam assuī solet: quae et patagīāta
dīcitur et patagiāriī, quī eiusmodī opera faciunt
A patagium is that which is usually sewn onto the
top of a tunic; and it [the tunic] is also called a patagiata, and
the patagiarii are those who make works / garments of this kind.
Topic / Level 4;
clothing; Neo-Latin [5] Comenius (1658) LXII: The Taylor | Sartor [4]
section (3)
[3]
breeches, 16. │ caligās, 16.
sometimes with ribbons, 17. │ aliquandō cum lemniscīs,
17.
stockins, 18. │ tībiālia, 18.
gloves, 19. │ chirothecās, 19.
muntero caps, 20. &c. │ amīculum, 20. &c.
____________________
[i] caligae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: When are boots not boots?
The choice of caligae to refer to ‘breeches’ seems odd,
especially since its Classical Latin meaning is distinctly ‘military boot or
sandal’. Comenius does not include it in the shoemaker chapter (in the previous
post) or in the chapter entitled “The Soldier” (CXXXIX).
Well, we need to move to the Middle Ages to find that the
Roman military boot had changed to a form of hose:
(1) an Hose: (Catholicon anglicum; 1483) caliga;
caligula
sunt ocrie [ = ocreae], calig(a)e quos tebia [ = tibia] portat
amictus
The leggings and ‘hosen’ (breeches) are the clothing which the
leg wears.
From the same dictionary, we find the person who made them was
an Hosyrer: calicator; caligator
However, the original Classical Latin meaning is referred to
(even if the spelling is a little ‘wayward’):
An hoase; a legge harnesse; greave or buskin that
shouldiours used, full of nayles in the botom.
(2) From the Dialogue of Solomon and Marcolf, with its
handy Middle English translation from 1492:
Calciamenta pedum ejus rustica erant nimis,
pannitiosa atque lutosa pellis; curta tunica usque ad nates, calig(a)e
repagulat(a)e, vestimenta ejus coloris turpissimi erant.
His shoes on his fete were ovyrmoche chorlysh and rude, and
his clothys fowle and dyrty; a shorte kote to the buttockys, his hasyn
hynge full of wrynkelys and alle his clothes were of the moost fowle coloure.
What was hanging below his ‘shorte kote’ was his wrinkly
‘hasyn’ (hosen)
“By the 16th century, hose had separated into two garments: upper
hose or breeches and nether hose or stockings.”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hose_(clothing)
And it is the term ‘breeches’ which the translator uses.
[ii] Moreover, the distinction between the ‘upper’ hose and
‘nether’ hose is retained in:
tibiāle, -is [3/n]: “stocking, or
other covering for the lower leg” (DMLBS)
- (adj) tībiālis, -e: relating to the shin-bone < tībia, -ae [1/f]: shin
hieme quaternīs cum pinguī togā tunicīs … et tībiālibus
mūniēbātur (Suetonius)
In winter he protected himself with four tunics and a heavy
toga, … and wraps for his … shins
[iii] chīrothēcae,
-ārum [1/f/pl] (Mediaeval) gloves;
also: gauntlets, but we don’t tend to have sword-fights in castles nowadays
[iv] lēmniscus, -ī [2/m]: ribbon
lūdis vērō dīmissīs cursū prope omnēs tendere ad
imperātōrem Rōmānum, ut ruente turbā in ūnum adīre contingere dextram
cupientium, corōnās lemniscōsque iacientium haud procul perīculō fuerit
(Livy)
When the games had come to an end, nearly everyone hurried
towards the Roman emperor, so that, as the crowd of those wishing to approach
him and touch his right hand rushed together, throwing crowns and ribbons,
it was not far short of being dangerous.
[v] The mystery of the montero cap!
The Oxford English Dictionary defines this as: “A cap of a
type formerly worn in Spain for hunting, having a spherical crown and (freq.
fur lined) flaps able to be drawn down to protect the ears and neck.
The writer for “The 1642 Tailor” who is careful and anxious to
get things right does wave the white flag:
“Unfortunately no one really knows for sure what a montero
actually looked like as there is no extant image that is labelled here is a
montero”
https://the1642tailor.com/2014/03/30/montero-caps/
Well, actually, there is. Comenius’ illustrator hangs one on
the back wall (20), and Hoole translates it as muntero cap. However, I am
sure the writer of the original statement never thought that the word would be
squirrelled away in a mid-17th century Latin book for kids!
Even with enhancement, some illustrations in Comenius’ work can
be “rough”. Nevertheless, it does show a cap with a rounded crown and flaps on
both sides.
(CL) amīculum, -ī [2/n] does not refer to a type of
headgear, but to “a garment that one throws about or on him, a mantle, cloak”
(Lewis & Short) However, it is an apt description for a type of headgear,
the flaps of which are wrapped around the ears and neck.
A modern reconstruction of the montero cap very closely
aligns with the one hanging in Comenius’ tailor’s shop.
“The 1642 tailor” reproduces a section of a painting entitled The siege of Aire-sur-la-Lys (1653), which I have enhanced since it is only one part of a far larger painting. It is practically contemporaneous with the illustration in Comenius’ work, and, although being worn in a military environment, is broadly similar.
Topic / Level 4;
clothing; Neo-Latin [6] Comenius (1658) LXII: The Taylor | Sartor [5]
section (4)
[4]
so the furrier │ sīc pelliō
maketh furred garments │ facit pellicia
of furs. │ ē pellibus.
pellis, -is [3/f]: skin, especially of
live animals; hide; leather; (by extension) an article of clothing made from
animal skin; synonym: corium, -ī [2/n]: leather; animal skin
pelliō, -ōnis [3/m]: furrier; skinner;
leather-tanner
pellicius, -a, -um: made of skins, leather
Topic / Level 4;
clothing; Neo-Latin [7] Tudor
school-boy life: the dialogues of Juan Luis Vives
From: Linguae Latīnae Exercitātiō (1539; Spanish transl. 1817;
Engl. transl. 1908)
We are only going to look at a short section of this work. However,
long before the Victorians jailed Latin into declension tables, this work shows
an entirely different approach and one which Modern Languages teachers at least
will recognise:
The author includes the vocabulary in the context of a
dialogue.
The context is topical.
The meanings are carefully distinguished.
Certain key words are explained.
The content is relevant to the pupils who would have read
this.
At times, the content would have made the pupils laugh.
The only real difference is that Comenius, a century later,
includes illustrations.
I have made some minor adaptations to the translation; in
brackets are included the margin notes.
Note: the use of nōn for ‘no’! In Classical Latin, of
course, other terms were used to express ‘no’, whereas nōn was the
equivalent of ‘not’. It is a small, but interesting example of the way in which
Latin was changing.
BELLINUS
Ūdōnēs* datō itidem mundōs; | Likewise,
give me clean socks;
nam hī sunt iam exsūdātī, | for these are now moist
et paedōre olidī: | and are foul with the stench:
Φεῦ, āmovē eōs ist(h)inc continuō, |
Phew! Take them away immediately from here,
offendit mē foetor (fētor) gravissimē. | the smell annoys me
terribly.
[*Ūdōnēs, sunt calceolī linteī. | Udones are ‘little’
linen ‘shoes’] < (CL) ūdō, -ōnis [3/m]: “a sock of felt or fur”
(Lewis & Short); “a warm, close-fitting shoe of felt” (Smith)
GOMEZULUS
Vīs interulam*? | Do you wish an under-garment?
[*Interula, est indusium subuculae proximum, quod per
hyemem (hieme) gestatur. | An interula is an undergarment closest
to the subucula (undershirt), which is worn during the winter.]
BELLINUS
Nōn, nam ex lūce sōlis colligō diem fore calidam, | No, for by
the light of the sun I gather that the day will be hot,
sed cede mihi thōrācem illum | But reach me that doublet
dīmidiīs manicīs | with the half sleeves
[…]
Et tunicam simplicem […] | And the simple / plain tunic […]
Cum vinculīs vestiāriīs oblongīs | with long cloth
cords
vinculum, -ī [2/n]: cord; rope;
fetter; “anything that can be bound” (Lewis & Short)
It is made specific in the dialogue: cum vinculīs vestiāriīs
| literally: with clothing cords)
Notes:
Vives makes far greater distinction when ‘labelling’ the
clothing than Classical Latin sources, and dictionary definitions can be vague.
However, we can see the way in which he does this:
In winter, we still wear layers of clothing, and so it is
interesting to see the way in which Vives carefully distinguishes them, and why
Bellinus does not need them.
It’s a nice day; Bellinus is content with two layers of
clothing:
tunica: what Bellinus wears as his
outermost ‘tunic’; Comenius uses the term to refer to a “coat” but most likely
the reference here is to a type of shirt.
thorāx: as we have already seen from
the Comenius text, Bellinus wants his ‘doublet’, a close-fitting men’s jacket
What he does not need:
interula, -ae [1/f]: an ‘inner’
garment < interulus, -a, -um: inward; inner
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