02.12.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [15]; the superlative (2); irregular superlatives; maximē + adjective

[1] There are a small number of irregular superlative forms although they have the same endings and decline in the same way as all other superlatives.

bonus, -a, -um: good > optimus, -a, -um: best

malus, -a, -um: bad > pessimus, -a, -um: worst

magnus, -a, -um: big  > maximus, -a, -um: biggest

parvus, -a, -um: small  > minimus, -a, -um: smallest

multus, -a, -um: much >  plūrimus, -a, -um: most; very many

[2] As with māior and minor, the superlatives maximus and minimus can be used when talking about ages:

Sextus maximus nātū est. │ Sextus is the eldest.          

Mārcus minimus nātū est. │ Marcus is the youngest.

Claudia maxima nātū est. │ Claudia is the eldest.        

Flavia minima nātū est. │ Flavia is the youngest.

[3] Four of these irregualr superlatives are seen in English derivatives:

optimus, -a, -um: best > Engl. deriv: optimist; optimistic

pessimus, -a, -um: worst > Engl. deriv: pessimist; pessimistic

minimus, -a, -um: smallest > Engl. deriv: minimum

maximus, -a, -um: largest > Engl. deriv: maximum

maximē + adjective

In the posts on comparatives we saw that certain adjectives which end in a vowel + us often do not form the comparative with -ior and -ius; instead they use magis (more) + the adjective. The same applies to the superlative of those adjectives where the superlative is expressed by maximē (most) + the adjective. Remember, though, that this is not a consistent use among Roman writers.

ānxius, -a, -um (anxious) > magis ānxius, -a, -um (more anxious) > maximē ānxius, -a, -um (most anxious)

• idōneus (suitable) >  maximē idōneus (most suitable)
• dubius (doubtful) > maximē dubius (most doubtful)
• ēgregius (distinguished) > maximē ēgregius (most distinguished)
• necessārius (necessary) >  maximē necessārius (most necessary)

And the world's greatest superlative: CIRCUS MAXIMUS

02.12.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [14]; the superlative (1); the biggest, the most beautiful, the best

Image #1: The superlative in English expresses: the biggest or the most beautiful or, with irregular forms e.g. the best or the worst.

a superlative performance: one that is done to the highest degree of skill

positive degree

longus, -a, um: long

comparative degree

longior, longius: longer

superlative degree

long¦issim¦us, long¦issim¦a, long¦issim¦um: (the) longest

[1] Images #2 and #3: For almost all adjectives Latin adds -issimus, -a, -um to the stem of the adjective and they decline in exactly the same way as any other 1^st / 2^nd declension adjective.

calid|us, -a, -um: hot > calid|issimus, -a, -um: hottest

frīgid|us, -a, -um: cold  > frīgid|issimus, -a, -um: coldest

[2] Image #4: Adjectives which end in -r in the positive degree form the superlative by adding -rimus to the masculine nominative singular form i.e. the /r/ is doubled:

pulcher, pulchra, -um: beautiful > pulcherrimus, -a, -um:  most beautiful

ācer, ācris, ācre: bitter; severe > ācerrimus, -a, -um: most bitter; most severe

[3] Image #5: For 3rd declension adjectives -issimus, -a, -um is added to the stem of the genitive singular of the positive degree of the adjective. 2 examples:

[i] nominative singular: fēlīx (happy)

> genitive singular: fēlīc¦is

> comparative: fēlīc¦ior (happier)

> superlative: fēlīc¦issimus (happiest)

[ii] nominative singular: recēns (recent)

> genitive singular: recent¦is

> comparative: recent¦ior (more recent)

> superlative: recent¦issimus (most recent)

[4] A small group of adjectives form their superlative by adding -limus, -a, -um to the stem i.e. the /l/ is doubled; the six adjectives listed below are the only ones which form the superlative in this way.

facil | is, -e: easy > facillimus, -a, -um: easiest

difficilis, -e: difficult > difficillimus, -a, -um: most difficult

similis, -e: similar > simillimus, -a, -um: most similar

dissimilis, -e: dissimilar; different > dissimillimus, -a, -um: most unlike

gracilis, -e: slender > gracillimus, -a, -um: most slender

humilis, -e: humble > humillimus, -a, -um: humblest

01.12.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [11]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [7]

vōx, vōcis [3/f]: voice

Vōx populī vōx deī: the voice of the people [is] the voice of god.

Alright, Elon Musk is making the decision based upon a vote and, by using the rather impressive Latin phrase, would be suggesting that the people’s voice has the greatest authority. However, depending on context, that phrase can have precisely the opposite implication. From Alcuin’s letter to Charlemagne in the late 8^th century AD:

Nec audiendī quī solent dīcere, Vōx populī, vōx Deī, quum tumultuōsitās vulgī semper īnsāniae proxima sit │ And those people should not be listened to who keep saying the voice of the people is the voice of God, since the riotousness of the crowd is always very close to madness.

Of course – as is always the case in politics – the pro-camp will go with the voice of god, and the anti-camp will quote the Alcuin letter to Charlemagne. I’m not making any political comment and I’ve noted both of them! 

30.11.24: Level 1; Maxey [17] (4)

[4] Diū Anna cum Iūliā manet. Puellae per oppidum ambulant quod Anna magna aedificia vidēre cupit. Per viās longās ambulant. Oppidum est Annae grātum. Ubi trāns viās puellae īre cupiunt, interdum est perīculum, sed Anna et Iūlia sunt tūtae quod vir magnus, "Properāte, puellae," inquit; "tūtae estis quod hīc ego sum." Tum manūs puellārum capit et puellae cum virō benignō trāns viam fortiter currunt.

Iūlia trēs amīcās habet. Prīma est fīlia medicī. Secunda est fīlia poētae. Tertia est fīlia mīlitis quī iacula et alia tēla domī habet. In mēnsā stat pictūra virī quī in capite galeam habet. Hic vir fortiter pugnat. Hunc mīlitem Anna laudat quod est pater amīcae.

Paragraph #1: The following statements are false; correct them.

1. Anna briefly stays with Julia.
2. They walk through the forest.
3. The town has small buildings and the streets are narrow.
4. Anna doesn’t like the town.
5. It’s easy to cross the roads.
6. A policeman helps them.
7. He takes their arms.
8. They walk across the road.

Paragraph #2

[1] Find the Latin:

1. (her) friend’s father
2. a doctor’s daughter
3. a picture of a man
4. a soldier’s daughter
5. the daughter of a poet
6. at home
7. on (his) head
8. on the table

[2] The father of Julia’s third friend is a soldier. Give three pieces of information about him.

30.11.24: Comenius; in a 17th century school [5]; quīdam

The word quīdam – and its declined forms – is easy to recognise since they all end in -dam

[i] It can stand alone as a pronoun:

quīdam [m], quaedam [f], quiddam [n]: a certain (person); a certain (thing) i.e. it is not specific as to who or what it’s referring to

quīdam stant │ Some / certain ones stand

quaedam praescrībuntur illīs │ Some / certain things are put in writing for them

As a pronoun it’s used in my favourite Mediaeval song in taberna quando sumus. Here are the lines with my translation:

[ii] It can also function as an adjective with a slight difference in the neuter:

quīdam [m], quaedam [f], quoddam [n]

In the Mediaeval text Gesta Romanorum it is used frequently to introduce stories and is employed to keep names and places vague:

Imperātrīx quaedam erat, in cuius imperiō erat quīdam mīles │ There was a certain empress in whose empire was a certain soldier

Perrēxit ad quendam philosophum │ He went to a certain philosopher [some philosopher i.e. it doesn’t matter which philosopher]

tibi habeō sēcrētum pandere quoddam │ I have a certain secret to reveal to you

Accidit quōdam diē, ut, cum fīlius piscātōris cum pilā quādam lūderet … │ It happened on a certain day, when the fisherman’s son was playing with a certain ball … [or: some ball or other might sound less “secretive”]

I have given the declension of both [i] and [ii]; this is for reference only and, apart from the neuter singular nominative and accusative there is no difference between them. Note, however, the use of /n/ in the accusatives and the genitive plurals; as long as you can recognise that “dam” ending, then you’ll be fine!

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quidam#Pronoun

[i]: pronoun i.e. a certain person / thing

[ii]: adjective i.e. a certain + noun; the only difference is in the neuter singular nominative and accusative

30.11.24: Comenius; in a 17th century school [4]; word cloud [ii]

Match the English with the Latin in the word cloud - with a couple of easy “extras” thrown in

I conduct

I converse

I correct

I divide

I learn

I listen; hear

I punish

I put in writing

I read

I recite

I shape; form

I sit

I stand

I teach

I write

29.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [10]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [6]

cīvis, -is [3 m/f]: citizen

cīvis Rōmānus sum: I am a Roman citizen

It is interesting to compare these two, not from a Biblical point of view, but from a legal one. Both of them invoke the rights afforded to Roman citizens. Verres was condemned for corruption and abuse of his authority in Sicily. Cicero, who was the prosecutor, launches numerous accusations against him including this one. The reference to crucifixion of a Roman citizen is utterly damning; note how Cicero repeats that.

[1] Cicero: in Verrem │ against Verres, the prosecution case against Gaius Verres, governor of Sicily:

He was next sent as proconsul (governor) to Sicily (73–71). Although corrupt governors were by no means rare, Verres was clearly remarkable for the extent to which he extorted bribes, juggled with the requisition of grain, looted works of art, and arbitrarily executed provincials and Roman citizens. He returned to Rome in 70, and, in the same year, at the Sicilians’ request, Cicero prosecuted him. (Britannica.com)

in mediō forō Messānae cīvis Rōmānus, iūdicēs, cum intereā nūllus gemitus, nūlla vōx alia illīus miserī inter dolōrem crepitumque plāgārum audiēbātur nisi haec, 'cīvis Rōmānus sum.’

In the middle of the forum of Messana* a Roman citizen, O judges, was beaten with rods; while in the mean time no groan was heard, no other voice was heard from that wretched man, amid all (his) pain, and between the sound of the blows, except these words, “I am a citizen of Rome.”

… sed cum implōrāret saepius ūsūrpāretque nōmen cīvitātis, crux,— crux, inquam,— īnfēlīcī et aerumnōsō, quī numquam istam pestem vīderat, comparābātur.

…  but as he begged more often and mentioned the name of his citizenship, a cross - a cross, I say - was being prepared for that unlucky and unfortunate man, who had never seen destruction such as that.

*Messana: now Messina, a city in the north-east of Sicily

[2] Paul the Apostle similarly invokes Roman law:

Vulgate: Acts 22 [the translation is not taken from any specific English version; I’ve tried to keep it as close as possible to the original to show how the Latin works]

v25: Et cum adstrīnxissent eum lōrīs, dīcit ¦ astantī sibi ¦ centuriōnī Paulus: “Sī hominem Rōmānum et indemnātum licet vōbīs flagellāre?” │ And when they had bound him with thongs, Paul says [said] to the centurion ¦ standing near him: ¦ “Is it lawful for you to flog a Roman man, and uncondemned?”

v26: Quō audītō, centuriō accessit ad tribūnum, et nūntiāvit eī, dīcēns: “Quid āctūrus es? Hīc enim homō cīvis Rōmānus est.” │ That having been heard [= when he had heard that] the centurion approached the commander, and announced (this) to him, saying: “What are you going to do? For this man is a Roman citizen.”

v27: Accēdēns autem tribūnus dīxit illī: “Dīc mihi tū Rōmānus es?” At ille dīxit “etiam”. │ But the commander, approaching, said to him: “Tell me, are you a Roman?” And he said “Yes”.

v28: Et respondit tribūnus: “Ego multā summā cīvitātem hanc cōnsecūtus sum.” Et Paulus ait: “Ego autem et nātus sum.” │ And the commander answered: “With a great sum [of money] I obtained this citizenship”. And Paul said “But I was born [a citizen].”

v29: Prōtinus ergō discessērunt ab illō ¦ quī eum tortūrī erant; ¦ tribūnus quoque timuit ¦ postquam rescīvit ¦ quia cīvis Rōmānus esset ¦ et quia alligāsset eum. │ Immediately, therefore, they withdrew from him, ¦ (those) who were about to interrogate him [tortūrī < torqueō: twist]. ¦ The commander was also afraid ¦ after he found out ¦ because he was a Roman citizen ¦ and because he had bound him.

28.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [13]; some derivatives

Some Latin comparatives have ended up in English not only as adjectives but also as nouns, for example:

interior design; the interior of a house

Engl. interior < La. interior, interius (inner); not a comparative of an adjective (there is no positive degree) but of inter (between; among)

Engl. exterior < La. exterior, exterius (outer) < exter, -a, -um (on the outside)

Engl. superior < La. superior, superius (higher) < superus, -a, -um (above; upper)

Engl. inferior < La. īnferior, īnferius < īnferus, -a, -um (low)

Engl. major < La. māior, māius (bigger); irregular comparative of magnus, -a, -um (big)

Engl. minor < La. minor, minus (smaller); irregular comparative of parvus, -a, -um (small)

One of the images shows a nice English wordplay on “major” – Charles Ingram was a Major in the army, but then blatantly cheated on “Who wants to be a millionaire?”, hence the double meaning of “Major Fraud”. Incidentally he was convicted of major fraud – but, because of it, he wasn’t a Major any more!

27.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [9]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [5]

anguis, -is [3 m/f]: snake; serpent

the “snake in the grass” from Vergil

Quī legitis flōrēs et humī nāscentia frāga, / frīgidus, ō puerī (fugite hinc!), latet anguis in herbā.

(Vergil: Ecloga III)

“You, picking flowers and strawberries that grow so near the ground, fly hence, boys, get you gone! There's a snake lurking in the grass.”

26.11.24: Level 1; Maxey [17] (3)

Complete the text by choosing the appropriate noun A, B or C

Vesperī pater et fīlia in magnō [1] __________ sunt. Iūlia [2] __________ exspectat et prope [3] __________ stat. Subitō [4] __________ et carrum videt. Ē [5] __________ currit et "Salvēte" inquit. Tēctum [6] __________ est magnum [7] __________. Multās fenestrās et quattuor [8] __________ habet. Ante [9] __________ est [10] __________. Per [11] __________ puellae ad [12] __________ ambulant. Pater, "Valēte," inquit, "[13] __________," et [14] __________ it. In tēctum nōn it.

[1] A. oppidō B. oppidum C. oppidī

[2] A. Annae B. Anna C. Annam

[3] A. fenestra B. fenestrā C. fenestram

[4] A. equī B. equum C. equō

[5] A. tēctō B. tēctum C. tēcta

[6] A. Iulia B. Iūliae C. Iūliā

[7] A. aedificiī B. aedificium C. aedificiō

[8] A. iānuae B. iānuīs C. iānuās

[9] A. tēctō B. tēctum C. tēcta

[1o] A. hortus B. hortum C. hortī

[11] A. hortus B. hortum C. hortī

[12] A. iānuam B. iānuā C. iānua

[13] A. puellās B. puellā C. puellae

[14] A. domus B. domum C. domī 

26.11.24: Comenius; in a 17th century school [3]; word cloud [i]

Match the English with the Latin in the word cloud

bench

blackboard

careless

chalk

class; form group

error

impudent

mind; spirit

pupil [m]

school

stick

table

teacher [f]

teacher [m]

teacher’s chair

workshop

25.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [8]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [4]

plēbs, plēbis [3/f]: the common people as opposed to the patriciī: the patricians, the nobles

The further you go back in history, the more difficult it can be to establish a true account of events. However, that stories persist suggest their initial importance in the Roman mind, but which have continued until now.

Personally, I don’t think we learn from history; we make the same mistakes again and again even though those mistakes are documented as having been made thousands of years ago. The Secession of the Plebs is a case in point; we appoint governments to lead us to avoid the danger of people taking matters into their own hands when a government is not – or appears not to be – acting in our interests.

The expression Secessiō Plēbis [Secession of the Plebs] can be put in more straightforward terms: the common people were sick of how they were being treated – and left the city. Some consider it to be the first General Strike comparing it to the 1926 General Strike in Britain. It was this action that led to the creation of the political office of Tribune of the Plebs. 

24.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [12]; full declension of the comparatives

 

[i] Apart from the nom. sg. masc. / fem. [clarior; fortior], all the comparative declension in -or has a long ō: clariōris, clariōrem; fortiōrī, fortiōrēs etc.

[ii] There is an alternative accusative plural ending in -īs: clariōrēs / clariōrīs; fortiōrēs / fortiōrīs

[iii] The only distinction between masc. / fem. forms and neut. forms is in the nom. / acc sg. and pl.

[iv] Compare the declension of the comparative adjective and 3rd declension nouns. Apart from the nominative singular and the neuter accusative singular, the noun endings and the endings for the comparative adjective are the same.

All comparative adjectives, apart from plūs, are formed in the same way regardless of whether the positive form is 1st / 2nd declension or 3rd declension:

1st / 2nd declension:    longus, -a, -um > longior, -ius  

3rd declension: brevis, -e > brevior, -ius 

Latin tutorial: summary of all the points previously discussed:

Complete the translations with the words and phrases listed below:

1. Aedificia meliora Rōmānī habent quam Gallī. │ The Roman have __________ buildings than the Gauls.
2. Alpēs multō altiorēs quam collēs Rōmānī sunt. │ The Alps are  __________ than the hills of Rome.
3. Vidī nūbem candidiōrem, quae in caelō fulsit. │ I saw a  __________  cloud, which shone in the sky
4. Cucurrērunt per silvam nocte animālia ingentiōra. │ The  __________  animals ran through the forest at night.
5. Fābulam peiōrem numquam audīvī. │I’ve never heard a  __________ tale.
6. Rōmānī hostibus fortiōribus quam Graecīs resistēbant. │ The Romans were resisting an enemy  __________ than the Greeks.
7. Est ōvum avis maiōris. │ It’s the egg  __________ bird. 
8. Lupī celeriōrēs ¦ canibus sunt. │ Wolves are  __________  ¦  __________.
9. Opera pulchriōra auctōris clāriōris legere dēbuimus. │ We had to read the  __________  works of the  __________ author.
10. Studēmus carnī feriōris et pinguiōris animālis. │ We are eager for the meat of a  __________  and  __________ animal.
11. Vult rēx īnsulae moenia altiōra quam templum aedificāre. │ The king of the island wants to build walls  __________  the temple.
12. Quō clārior poēta est, hōc pulchriōrēs versūs scrībit. │  __________  famous the poet is, __________ verses he writes.
13. Clāmōrēs equitum plūrium audīvimus. │ We heard the shouts  __________  cavalrymen.

better; braver; fatter; higher than; more famous; much higher; of a bigger; of many; rather beautiful; rather huge; rather white; swifter; than dogs; the more; the more beautiful; wilder; worse

24.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [11]: plūs

Pause for thought: this post looks at three features of one word, namely plūs:

[i] what it means, [ii] how it is used – and not used, and [iii] how it is formed i.e. its declension

It is a very good example of the need to decide how far you want to go when learning a particular aspect of Latin. What it means in terms of passive reading is the crucial point because, regardless of its different forms and ways in which it is used, the main aim is to recognise it and to know its meaning. When I started I focused on [i] and [ii]. I vaguely familarised myself with the endings i.e. I took a look at them but didn’t sit down and learn them.

As has been mentioned so often before, you can become more secure with the endings of Latin when reading the language in context. Look at the quotations and phrases below from two different perspectives: pretty much every example of plūs – regardless of its form - translates as ‘more’; leave the endings until later.

Another point to note: a declension table will give you all the forms, but some forms are very rare – and, as the table shows – there are occasions when one does not exist i.e. it is not attested anywhere. As Orwell (sort of) stated: “All endings are equal, but some endings are more equal than others.”

You need to find your own “level” in any language: you can simply remember that plūs means ‘more’ and move on, or you can use the notes to dig a little deeper.

plūs: more; it is the comparative form of multus, -a, -um (much)

Note: While Modern French uses plus + the adjective to form comparatives e.g. plus grand (bigger) and plus intéressant (more interesting), Latin does not use plūs in that way: you cannot say *plūs altus* or *plūs pulcher* to express taller or more  beautiful.

[1] In the singular, it functions as a noun:

paulō plūs quam mille passūs (Livy) │ a little more than 1,000 paces [= a Roman mile]

Cicero in the prosecution case against Verres:

… arātōrēs vī et metū coāctōs Aprōniō multō plūs quam dēbuerint dedisse,  │ … the cultivators, coerced by violence and fear, gave much more to Apronius than they owed

In the singular it is also used with another noun in the genitive case to express more of something:

plūs vīnī: more wine; note the French equivalent which replaces the genitive case with ‘de’ (of): plus de vin i.e. literally ‘more (of) wine’

plūs pecūniae habēre │ to have more money

plūs malī quam bonī adferre (Cicero) │ to bring more bad than good

[2] In the plural, plūrēs functions as an adjective agreeing with the noun i.e. it does not govern the genitive in the way that plūs does. 

The translation may not always specifically express “more” but some term referring to “a (fairly) great number” or, depending on context, ‘too many’:

ē plūribus ūnum: out of many, one

[3] When expressing ‘more’ with plural nouns, either [i] plūs + genitive plural or [ii] plūrēs agreeing in case with the noun. This is similar to English.

[i] Plūs ¦ nummōrum invēnimus. │ We found more (of the) coins.

[ii] Plūrēs nummōs invēnimus. │ We found more coins.

Examples:

[i]

Itaque domī gaudet, plūs in diē nummōrum accipit, quam alter patrimōnium habet. (Petronius: Satyricon) │ So he rejoices at home and receives more coins in a day than another person has as a whole fortune.

Plūs tamen hostium fuga quam proelium absūmpsit; (Livy)│ Yet more of the enemy perished in flight than in the battle

plūs voluptātum habēre quam dolōrum (Cicero) │ to have more (of) pleasures than (of) pains

A fairly loose translation of a line from Juvenal:

Aspice portūs et plēnum magnīs trabibus mare: plūs hominum es iam in pelagō. Look at our ports, our seas, crowded with big ships ! The men at sea now outnumber those on shore [i.e. more men]

[ii]

… cum ōrātōrēs duo aut plūrēs populī iūdiciō probantur (Cicero) │ … when two or more speakers are judged by the people

Quid ego plūra dīcam? (Cicero) │ What more (words) am I to say?

In these last two examples, note how the translation may not be "more" but rather some general expression of a large number which can vary depending upon context:

Iste petit ā rēge et ¦ eum plūribus verbīs ¦ rogat ut id ad sē mittat (Cicero) │ He begs the king, and ¦ entreats him most earnestly [= asks him with very / too many words] ¦ to send it to him

Inde plūrium diērum praeparātīs cibāriīs cōnsilium erat īre ad hostem (Livy)  │ From there, after several days' rations had been prepared, the plan was to march against the enemy.

23.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [7]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [3]

pestis, -is [3/f]: the term referring to a plague such as the Black Death, the bubonic plague pandemic in the mid-14^th century

Yersinia Pestis: a species of plague bacillus causing the bubonic plague

Just out of interest – because some fascinating images do crop up when you’re looking at this kind of topic – I’ve added an image that has nothing to do with Latin but everything to do with pestis: a Bill of Mortality, indicating the number of deaths and injuries – in one week – in London in 1665. Here are a few edited highlights with a strong suggestion that, if they didn’t know what had caused a death, they probably made it up. But it’s the figure for the plague that’s terrifying:

aged: 54

cancer: 2

“frighted”: 1

“grief”: 1

“lethargy”: 1

murthered at Stepney: 1

“sore legge”: 1

“suddenly”: 1

And …

plague: 3880

It wasn’t the bell (pestem fugō) – or the terrifying plague doctor - that chased away the Plague: a fire broke out in a baker’s shop in Pudding Lane the following year which burned down most of London and, in the process, killed all the rats that were carrying the pestis.

22.11.24: Level 1; Maxey [17] (2)

[2] Vesperī puella nōn it. Māne it. Pater cum puellā it. Māne in carrō pater et fīlia per agrōs et silvam properant. Equum habent. Equus bene currit quod est validus. Ā dextrā et ā sinistrā multa videt. Omnēs rēs sunt grātae. Subitō in agrō quattuor animālia videntur. Pater, sagittārius bonus, arcum et sagittās habēre cupit, sed puella est laeta quod nūlla tēla sunt in carrō quod animālia sunt amīcī Annae.

1. When does the girl go? [1]
2. Who goes with her? [1]
3. How do they travel? [1]
4. What places do they go through? [2]
5. What two pieces of information are given about the horse? [2]
6. The girl sees a lot of pleasant things: where? [2]
7. What are seen in the field? [1]
8. What do you think the father wants to do? How do you know? [4]
9. Why is the girl happy? [2]

22.11.24: Comenius; in a 17th century school [2]: vocabulary and notes

The text was written in 1658 despite which there is a good amount of vocabulary related to schools that can still be used:

[A]: nouns

cathedra, -ae [1/f]: chair, but specifically a chair with arms, a chair that symbolised authority initially for a teacher and later for a bishop; the noun cathedral is derived from this i.e. the principal church, the seat of the bishop / archbishop

classis, -is [3/f]: we most associate this word in Classical Latin with a fleet of ships, but it also had the meaning of ‘class’ in the sense of dividing people into groups

crēta, -ae [1/f]: chalk

discipulus, -ī [2/m]: pupil [m]; also discipula, -ae [1/f]: pupil [f]

menda, -ae [1/f] or mendum, -ī [2/n]: fault; error

officīna, -ae [1/f]: this is expressed nicely both in Latin and in 17^th century English; officīna in CL referred to a place where something was manufactured (hence Engl. workshop) as opposed to taberna, -ae [1/f], a shop where something was sold. Comenius compares a school to a workshop, a place where “young wits are fashioned to virtue” i.e. he conveys the idea of young minds being constructed / shaped / formed in a “workshop”.

praeceptor, praeceptōris [3/m]: teacher; a synonym for the more familiar magister, magistrī [2/m] or magistra, -ae [1/f] which have the same meaning; the English noun preceptor also means a teacher but has fallen into disuse in relation to schools. However, it is still used in the field of Medicine to refer to an experienced medical practitioner who supervise students.

schola, -ae [1/f]: school; also: lūdus, -ī [2/m]

subsellium, -ī [2/n]: a low bench; a ‘form’ (now archaic); Some schools still refer to ‘Forms’ rather than year groups; the term Sixth Form is still in common use in the UK to refer to the two years of school for 16+ students;

in Ancient Rome the word was used to refer to any kind of bench or row of seats e.g. in the theatre or the Senate

the word also referred to a judge’s seat hence the expression “called / summoned to the bench”

tabella, -ae [1/f]: a small board / tablet for writing; this is the diminutive (smaller version) of tabula, -ae [1/f]: a tablet covered in wax for writing; here tabella is marked in the image as referring to a blackboard

[B]: verbs

castīgō, -āre, -āvī [1]: punish

Note

[i] the passive use: castigantur │ they are punished

[ii] the ablative of means / instrument i.e. what is used to punish them:

hī castīgantur ferulā (baculō) et virgā │ they are punished with [by means of] a rod and a switch [a slender plant stem]

cōnfābulor, -ārī: converse; talk together; this type of verb is called a deponent verb which has not yet been done in the group and it will be looked at in more detail later; for the moment, take a look at the two lads at the back of the class who are not paying attention!

corrigō, -ere, corrēxī [3]: correct

discō, -ere, didicī [3]: learn

distinguō, -ere, distīnxī [3]: divide

Note the passive use: schola distinguitur in classēs │ the school is divided into forms (classes, year groups)

doceō, -ēre, docuī [2]: teach

fōrmō, -āre, -āvī [1]: shape; fashion

Note the passive use: novellī animī ad virtūtem fōrmantur │ young minds are fashioned / shaped to virtue

gerō, -ere, gessī [3]: has several meanings including ‘manage’ or ‘conduct’; here as a reflexive verb i.e. gerunt sē: they behave themselves or, in this case, don’t behave themselves:

petulāns, petulantis: impudent; petulant; wanton

negligēns, negligentis: careless; indifferent; also: neglegēns, neglegentis

A feature of Latin is the use of adjectives where we would expect and which the translator renders as adverbs:

gerunt sē petulantēs et negligentēs │ they behave themselves wantonly and carelessly.

sedeō, -ere, sēdī [3]: sit

scrībō, -ere, scrīpsī [3]: write

praescrībō,-ere, -scrīpsī [3]: put down in writing

Note the passive use: Quaedam praescrībuntur illīs. │ Some things are put down in writing for them i.e. written in front of them (on the board).

recitō, -āre, -āvī [1]: recite

stō, stāre, stetī [1]: stand

Note!

baculum,-ī [2/n]: cane; stick

ferula, -ae [1/f]: stick; rod

virga, -ae [1/f]: rod; switch for flogging

They all have a similar meaning, and they all have a similar effect! They’re sitting on the table in the image as an ominous reminder to those potentially wanton and careless 17^th century schoolboys! 

21.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [6]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [2]

vēritās, vēritātis [3/f]: truth

all 3^rd declension nouns ending in -tās are feminine and they all form their stem in the same way:

vēritās, vēritāt¦is

lībertās, lībertātis [3/f]: freedom; liberty

tempestās, tempestātis [3/f]: storm

in vīnō vēritās: in wine [there is] truth

A bunch of Mediaeval drunks: I’m not sure what “truth” the gentleman in the first image wants out of her, but she doesn’t seem too happy about it!

And, judging by some of the other images, getting wasted on wine may have made people not so much truthful, but stupid!

20.11.24: level 2 degrees of comparison [10]: translation practice

Complete the translations with the missing words and phrases listed below.

1. Ego beātior sum ¦ illō. │ I’m __________ ¦ __________.
2. Fīlius noster nunc aegrior est quam erat. │ Our son is now __________ than he was.
3. Urbs frequentior est quam rūs. │ The city is __________ crowded __________ the countryside.
4. Vir fortior nōn capiētur et interficiētur. │ A __________ man will not be captured and killed.
5. Rēx multō prudentior quam frāter est. │ The king is __________ than his brother.
6. Nihil libertāte melius est  │ Nothing is better __________.
7. Tam dīves quam Croesus est. │ He is __________ as Croesus.
8. Ille nōn tam altus quam hic est.  │ That man is not as __________ this one.
9. Quantō gravius bellum est, tantō territior populus oppidī est. │ __________ serious the war, __________ are the people of the town.
10. Cuius vultus pulchrior vidētur? │ Whose face seems __________?
11. Saeviorne dea est quam illa? │ Is the goddess __________ than __________?
12. Sextus est paulō minor quam Mārcus. │ Sextus is __________than Marcus.
13. Hic discipulus est minus diligēns quam ille. │ This pupil is __________ hard-working than that one. 

a little smaller; as wealthy; crueller; less; more; more blessed; much wiser; prettier; sicker; tall as; than; than freedom; than he (is); that one; the more; the more frightened

20.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [9]; ablative of degree of difference with multō, paulō etc.

The adverb multō ‘by much’, originally an ablative of multus, is used when emphasising the amount of difference; in grammar this is known as the ablative of degree of difference i.e. by how much something / someone is taller, wider, richer etc.

Rēx multō fortior quam frāter est. │ The king is much / far braver than his brother.

Ego in terram eō multō pulchriōrem.  │ I am going to a much more beautiful country.

Horātia multō prūdentior est quam cēterae. │ Horatia is much wiser than the others.

Examples of other adverbs which function in the same way are:

[i] paulō: by a little

haec quaestiō paulō difficilior est │ this problem is a little more difficult

[ii] tantō: by so much; tantō melior / melius │ all (so much) the better

'tantō melior' inquit 'Massa, dōnō tibi cālīgās'. (Petronius) │ “Better than ever, Massa,” he said, “I will give you a pair of boots.”

[iii] dīmidiō:  by half; dimidio brevius │ shorter by half; half as short

Hibernia īnsula, dīmidiō minor ut exīstimātur quam Britannia (Caesar) │ Ireland, smaller, as is reckoned, than Britain, by one half

[iv] aliquantō: by a little (somewhat); considerably

Johannes Jonstonus’s 300 page work on birds published in 1657 has a superb set of illustrations. In the descriptions of the birds there are many good examples of comparatives and the use of aliquantō:

Masculus aliquantō longior est, corpore, collō ac cristā ampliōrī. Rōstrum fēminae brevius est … [Johannes Jonstonus: Historiae naturalis de avibus (1657)] │ The male is somewhat longer, with a larger body, neck, and crest. The female's beak is shorter … 

Latin tutorial: ablative of degree of difference