From Jānua (Iānua) linguārum reserāta (The Gate of Languages
Unlocked) by Comenius, first published in 1631. The image shows the English
publication of 1643.
The very first chapter uses two verb forms we have already
covered: [i] the imperative i.e. the command form telling you to do something
and [ii] the future tense of the first and second conjugations:
Venīte puerī │ Come children
Discite latīnam linguam │ Learn the
Latin language
Pulchram et ēlegantem │ Beautiful and elegant
Comprehendite │ Understand it
Prō vestrō captū │ According to your capacity
Et variās rēs │ and various things
Sapientiæ sēmina │ the seeds of wisdom
Deus vōs iuvābit │ God will help you
Praeceptōrēs amābunt │ Teachers will
love you
Aliī laudābunt │ Others will praise you
Ipsī gaudēbitis │ You yourselves will
rejoice
Sī prīncipium difficile │ If the beginning is hard
Medium erit facile │ The middle will
be easy
Fīnis iūcundus │ The end pleasant
***
You might want to remember those last three lines from a
17th century Latin teacher.
“Crāsne erit Mārcus Rōmae?” Rogat Tullia. “Rōmae erunt multī
virī et fēminae quod lūdī celebrantur. Fortasse Marcus ibi erit,” respondet
Cornēlius. “Fortasse Mārcum vidēbimus,” clāmant puerī et in domicilium
properant.
[1] Identify:
[i] the verbs in the future tense; remember -bō / -bi- /
-bu-
[ii] the verbs in the present tense
[2] What’s the purpose of -ur in: “lūdī celebrantur”?
Note:
“Ego libenter ambulābō, ¦ sī Aulus ambulābit”
Spot the difference:
I shall willingly go [future] ¦ if Aulus goes [present].
Latin:
[i] “Ego libenter ambulābō [future = English],
[ii] ... sī Aulus ambulābit [future]”
English uses the present tense [...if Aulus goes], but Latin
uses the future tense i.e. literally: ...if Aulus will go.
Because the imperfect tense of all four conjugations and the future tense of the 1st and 2nd conjugations have a characteristic /b/ in the endings, they can easily be misread. Which of the following verbs are imperfect, and which are future? Look out for the characteristic /ba//bā/ of the imperfect tense and /bō/ /bi/ and /bu/ of the future. What are the meanings in English?
Ad locum ubi proelium erat Britannōrum cum Rōmānīs ābimus.
We’ll go (away) to the place where there was a
battle between the Britons and the Romans.
Posted are the three tenses covered so far of eō,
īre: go. Look in particular at the similarity between the imperfect and the
future. You need to remember two things:
[i] -ba- / -bā- : those are imperfect tense markers
[ii] -bō / -bi- / -bu- : those are future tense markers; they’re
not the only ones but it’s important to become familiar with them because,
owing to the presence of the /b/ they can be misread for the imperfect.
Postrīdiē caelum serēnum erat. On the following
day the sky was clear.
Nūper, dum Marcus et Alexander mēcum erant...
Recently, while Mark and Alexander were with me...
Quotā horā paratī eritis? At what time will
you be ready?
Quotā hōrā cēnāre poteritis? At what time will
you be able to have dinner?
The more Latin you read, the more that different tenses will
be thrown at you! Here are the irregular verbs sum, esse: be,
and possum, posse: to be able in the three tenses
covered so far in the posts. You can see that possum, posse is
essentially the same verb as sum, esse with pot- or pos- (referring
to ability).
Read the text for
understanding using the vocabulary and notes to help you. Focus on the verbs in
bold; they are all in the future tense.
Vestīgia Rōmānōrum
[Ora Maritima
(Sonnenschein)]
Nūper, dum Marcus et Alexander
mēcum erant, patruō meō “Quantopere mē dēlectābit” inquam “locum
vīsitāre ubi oppidum Rōmānum quondam stābat.” Et Alexander “Monstrā nōbīs,”
inquit “amābō tē, ruīnās castellī Rutupīnī.” Tum patruus meus
“Longa est via,” inquit “sed aliquandō monstrābō. Crās, sī vōbīs
grātum erit, ad locum ubi proelium erat Britannōrum cum
Rōmānīs abībimus. Ambulābitisne nōbīscum, Marce et
Alexander?” “Ego verō” inquit Marcus “tēcum libenter ambulābō”; et
Alexander “Mihi quoque pergrātum erit, sī nōbīs sepulchra
Britannārum et Rōmānōrum monstrābis.” Sed patruus meus “Festīna
lentē” inquit; “nullae sunt ibi reliquiae sepulchrōrum, et virī doctī dē locō
proeliī disputant. Sed quotā horā paratī eritis?” “Quintā hōrā”
inquiunt.
Postrīdiē caelum
serēnum erat. Inter ientāculum amita mea “Quotā hōrā” inquit “in viam vōs dabitis?
et quotā hōrā cēnāre poteritis?” Et patruus meus “Quintā hōrā
Marcus et Alexander Dubrīs adventābunt; intrā duās hōrās ad locum
proeliī ambulāre poterimus; post ūnam hōram redambulābimus;
itaque hōrā decimā vel undecimā domī erimus, ut spērō.” Tum ego
“Nōnne iēiunī erimus,” inquam “sī nihil ante vesperum gustābimus?”
“Prandium vōbīscum portāte” inquit amita mea; “ego crustula et pōma cūrābō.”
adventō, adventāre
[1]: arrive
aliquandō: one day
i.e. (at) sometime
crās: tomorrow
crustulum, -ī
[2/n]: small cake or pastry; biscuit
disputō, disputāre
[1]: dispute; argue
doctus, -a, -um:
educated
Dubrae [plural
noun]: Dover; Marcus et Alexander Dubrīs [ablative plural]
adventābunt: Mark and Alexander will be arriving from Dover
grātus, -a, -um:
pleasing > pergrātus, -a, -um: very pleasing
gustō, gustāre [1]:
taste; eat a little; have a light meal
inquam: I say;
inquit: he / she says; inquiunt: they say; note: depending on context these can
translate as past tenses
monstrō, monstrāre
[1]: show
nūllus, -a, -um: no
i.e. not any
nuper: recently
postrīdiē: on the
following day
quantopere: how
greatly
quondam: at one
time
redambulō,
redambulāre [1]: walk back
Rutupīnus,-a, -um:
belonging to Richborough; see image posted: Richborough Roman fort and
amphitheatre
serēnus, -a, um:
clear
Notes:
[1] “Quotā hōrā”
inquit “in viam vōs dabitis? Literally: At what time will
you give yourselves to the road? [= At what time will you start / set
off?]
Dux bellum amat. Libenter dux armātōs ad bellum dūcit. Vīta
ducis perīculōrum est plēna; sed ducis virtus est magna. Ducī patria est cāra.
Saepe patria ducem vocat; tum ā duce armātī ad bellum dūcuntur. Erant apud
Rōmānōs multī et clārī ducēs. Statuae ducum clārōrum in forō Rōmānō vidēbantur.
Bellum ducibus Rōmānīs erat semper grātum quod spolia erant multa. Nōs ducēs
Rōmānōs laudāmus et fābulās dē ducibus legimus. Mīles bellum amat. Virtūs
mīlitis est magna. Victōria mīlitī est grāta; itaque prō patriā dīligenter
pugnat. Pāx quoque mīlitem dēlectat et ā mīlite laudāntur. Apud Rōmānōs erant
multī et clārī mīlitēs. Victōriae mīlitum Rōmānōrum erant multae. Saepe magnī
triumphī agēbantur. Triumphī et ducibus et mīlitibus erant grātī. Populus
Rōmānus mīlitēs laudābat quod multa spolia ā ducibus mīlitibusque Rōmam
portābantur. Lēx antīqua erant: victōrī sunt spolia.
MĪLITĒS RŌMĀNĪ
Auctōritās Rōmāna erat magna quod Rōma tot mīlitēs habēbat.
Mīlitēs erant peditēs et equitēs. Eques equum habēbat et ab equō pugnābat.
Pedes equum nōn habēbat; pedibus pugnābat. Equitēs proelium committēbant sed
peditēs pīlīs et gladiīs proelium gerēbant. Arma peditis erant lōrīca, galea,
scutum, gladius. In sinistrā scūtum, in dextrā pīlum portābantur. Interdum
mīlitēs Rōmānī oppidum oppugnābant, et magnī lapidēs in mūrōs oppidī
mittēbantur. Virtūs mīlitum Rōmānōrum erant magna. Ā rēgibus et prīncipibus multārum
terrārum Rōmānī timēbantur quod fāma mīlitum Rōmānōrum erat magna. Līberī rēgum
et prīncipum saepe erant obsidēs Rōmānōrum et Rōmam dūcēbantur. Multā fābulās
dē obsidibus Rōmānōrum legimus.
[1] This time, all I’ll do is give the nominative singular
of the 3rd declension nouns. What would the genitive singular be? That’s what
you need to form the stem for all the other endings. All you have to do is look
through the two short texts and you will see the stem change, for example:
rēx > then look for another form of that word where the
stem change is showing (rēg¦ibus) and add -is to the stem: > rēg¦is
dux, du __ is [3/m]: leader
pēs, pe __ is [3/m]: foot
lapis, lap__ __ is [3/m]: stone
obses, obs __ __ is [3/m]: hostage
eques, __________ [3/m]: horseman
mīles, __________ [3/m]: soldier
pedes, __________ [3/m]: foot soldier
prīnceps, __________ [3/m]: chief
[2] Other vocabulary
lōrīca, -ae [1/f]: corselet; armour
pīlum, -ī [2/n]: javelin; spear
tot: so many
[3] Which words go where? Look at the extracts from the text
and fill in the blanks with the words listed.
about; by; commander; commanders; have; led; on foot; read;
seen; soldiers; to; used; were
1. Tum ā duce armātī ad bellum dūcuntur.
Then armed men are __________ to war by the __________.
2. Statuae ducum clārōrum in forō Rōmānō vidēbantur.
The statues of famous __________ were __________ in the
Roman forum.
3. Multa spolia ā ducibus mīlitibusque Rōmam portābantur.
Many spoils __________ carried __________ the commanders and
the __________ to Rome.
4. Nōs … fābulās dē ducibus legimus.
We __________ tales __________ the commanders.
5. Victōrī sunt spolia.
Spoils __________ the victor.
6. Pedes equum nōn habēbat; pedibus pugnābat.
The foot soldier did not __________ a horse; he __________
to fight __________.
That we can watch a video of three lads playing football
with a description in Latin is a remarkable testimony to the “staying power” of
this language. Some debate goes on (elsewhere) as to whether or not Latin is a
“dead” language with the usual tedious analysis of the term “dead”. The boys
couldn’t have made that video in Hieroglyphics or Etruscan, but they could in
Latin because Latin, for centuries after the Romans, continued to grow, evolve
and be used throughout the loosely described “Late Latin” period, the Dark
Ages, the Middle Ages and into the 17th and 18th centuries as a common language
for academics to publish their works throughout Europe. It was the language of
the monasteries and the Church, Comenius wrote an entire school book in the
17th century describing every conceivable concept that the kids at that time
would need, and he had no hesitation in incorporating Latin words that existed
by his time even if they hadn’t existed or had different meanings in the
Classical period. 17th century kids could talk about their world in the same
way as the boys here talk about theirs. And in the 21st century Latin words
have been adapted to suit contemporary needs.
While the focus of the group is Classical Latin, it’s
interesting to mark time for a moment and reflect: the Romans never played in
the Premier League but the language of Plautus 200 years BCE can still be used
to describe what’s going on in a football match.
That doesn’t sound dead to me.
The New Latin expressions have come from Traupman’s Conversational
Latin for Oral Proficiency, extracts from which have been used in earlier
posts. If you are looking for New Latin, a good source is also:
https://neolatinlexicon.org/
eāmus: this is a subjunctive form of the verb eō,
īre: go. Here it means “let’s go”; don’t get involved with subjunctives if
you’re a starter in Latin.
campus, -ī [2/m]: plain; natural field (as opposed to ager, agrī,
which refers to a cultivated field)
In
principiō Rōma erat parva urbs. Bellō potestātem augēbat.
Prīmō proeliō cum gentibus proximīs gerēbantur. Virtūs gentium proximārum
erat magna sed Rōmānī erant victōrēs. Tandem Rōma erat domina Italiae. Trāns
mare habitābant Carthāginiēnsēs. Erant hostēs Rōmānōrum.
Magnam classem habēbant; itaque mare regēbant.
Magnum numerum nāvium longārum habēbant et bellum amābant.
Erant longa bella inter Rōmānōs et Carthāginiēnsēs; magna erat caedēs.
Tandem Rōmānī erant victōrēs; itaque Rōma erat domina maris.
Tum in Asiā et in Galliā et in Britanniā bella gerēbantur. Tandem Asia, Gallia,
Britannia in Rōmae potestāte erant. Sīc terrā marīque potestās Rōmāna
erat maxima.
Vocabulary
(a) 3rd
declension nouns
caedēs,
caedis [3/f]: slaughter, massacre
classis,
-is [3/f]: fleet
gēns,
gentis [3/f]: race, tribe
nāvis, -is
[3/f]: ship
nāvis
longa: warship
potestās,
potestātis [3/f]: power, ability
(b) other
words
augeō,
augēre [2]: increase
Carthāginiēnsis:
Carthaginian; the spelling is sometimes with a /k/: Karthāginiēnsis
Notes
When
learning any language there are features that are more important than others.
There is a risk, which I have experienced too, of becoming dragged down by
lengthy explanations of comparatively minor points which simply interrupts the
flow of learning. The information below refers to a particular feature of 3rd
declension nouns. At the end, there are three points summarised.
I stress this
from my own experience.
Choice #1:
I would suggest that, for the moment, you read through the information, note
the summaries and leave it at that.
Choice #2:
If you do want to look at this in greater depth, I have posted a file - i-stem
nouns - which explains it all in detail, and no grammar book will be
able to explain it any more concisely than the information in that file. But
the explanations - especially if you’re still finding your way around Latin -
can seem daunting, full of complex terms and difficult to remember.
When I
started, I made the wrong choice and, in the end, abandoned the explanations
until I had become more familiar with the language. Only then, did I look at it
more closely.
Following
on from the text above and other recent ones:
We’re
focusing on three specific points.
Point One
flōs,
flōris [3/m]: flower
homō,
hominis [3/m]: man; in the plural hominēs most often refers to
people
spectātor,
spectātōris [3/m]: spectator
From recent
texts:
odor ¦
flōrum: the scent ¦ of the flowers
Multitūdō
hominum ¦ in Rōmae viās properābat: A crowd ¦ of people
¦ hurried into the streets of Rome.
Clāmōrēs
spectātōrum ¦ Circum Maximum complent: The shouts ¦ of the
spectators ¦ fill the Circus Maximus.
That’s the
genitive plural, the case that expresses possession and English ‘of’, and you
can see that the 3rd declension ending is -um.
Now look at
these ones from recent texts:
cīvīs, -is
[3/m or f]: citizen
gēns,
gentis [3/f]: tribe; race
īnfāns,
īnfantis [3/m or f]: infant
urbs, urbis
[3/f]: city
iūra ¦
cīvium : the rights ¦ of citizens
virtūs ¦
gentium: the courage ¦ of the races
quirītātūs ¦ īnfantium: the plaintive cries ¦ of infants
Rōma est
maxima ¦urbium: Rome is the largest ¦ of the
cities
ruīnae ¦
urbium: the ruins ¦ of cities
** Point
One: sometimes the genitive plural of 3rd declension nouns ends in -um, and
sometimes -ium **
Point Two
From recent
texts:
caput,
capitis [3/n]
corpus,
corporis [3/n]
iūs, iūris
[3/n]: right
mare, maris
[3/n]: sea
They’re all
neuter nouns.
Iūra [nominative
plural] … dīligenter servābantur: Rights … were carefully protected.
Super
capita et corpora [accusative plural] … reliquae
quadrīgae volant: The remaining chariots fly over the heads and bodies ….
Here we
have nominative and accusative plural of 3rddeclension nouns ending in -a
Now look at
this one from a recent text:
Maria Italiam
ferē circumstant: The seas almost surround Italy.
** Point
two: sometimes the nominative and accusative of 3rd declension neuter nouns end
in -a, and sometimes -ia. **
Point Three
ōs, oris
[3/n]: mouth
mare, maris
[3] sea
From a
recent text:
Urbs Rōma
ab ōre flūminis Tiberis nōn longē abest: The city of Rome is not
far away from the mouth of the River Tiber.
3rd
declension noun in the ablative case; the ending is -e
Now look at
these ones from recent texts:
terrā marīque:
by land and by sea
Ā marī paucae
nāvēs Rōmam veniunt: Few ships come from the sea to Rome.
** Point
three: sometimes the ablative singular of 3rd declension nouns ends in -e and
sometimes -ī **
Summary
1. Point
One: sometimes the genitive plural of 3rddeclension nouns ends in -um, and
sometimes -ium
2. Point
two: sometimes the nominative and accusative of 3rd declension neuter nouns end
in -a, and sometimes -ia.
3. Point
three: sometimes the ablative singular of 3rd declension nouns ends in -e and
sometimes -ī
For the
moment, as I said at the beginning, leave it at that. It is enough
when reading simply to be able to recognise those endings.
____________________
In the
beginning Rome was a small town. It increased its power by war. The first
battle was fought the neighboring nations. The courage of the neighbouring
nations was great, but the Romans were the victors. At last Rome was the
mistress of Italy. The Carthaginians lived across the sea. They were the
enemies of the Romans. They had a great fleet; therefore they ruled the sea.
They had a large number of long ships and loved war. There were long wars
between the Romans and the Carthaginians; the slaughter was great. At last the
Romans were the victors, and so Rome was the mistress of the sea. Wars were
then waged in Asia, in Gaul, and in Britain. At last Asia, Gaul, and Britain
were under the power of Rome. Thus Roman power on land and sea was the
greatest.
Rōma est urbs clāra. Viae, templa, aedificia urbis
sunt pulchra. Flūmen Tiberis urbem dīvidit. Mare nōn longe ab urbe
abest. In mare flūmen Tiberis fluit; urbs Rōma ab ōre flūminis
Tiberis nōn longē abest. Nōmen maris est Mare Īnferum. Ā marī
paucae nāvēs Rōmam veniunt quod flūmen nōn est altum. Est Mare
Superum quoque; nam maria Italiam ferē circumstant. Sunt multae et
magnae urbēs in Italiā. Rōma est maxima urbium. Rōma est caput
Italiae. Multīs urbibus pulchrīs proxima est Rōma. Viātōrēs ā multīs
terrīs ad urbēs clārās veniunt. In multīs urbibus Italiae sunt ruīnae
aedificiōrum magnōrum. Ruīnae urbium antīquārum viātōribus sunt
grātae; antīquās urbēs libenter spectant. Temporibus antīquīs cīvis
Rōmānus erat homō superbus. Nisi homō erat cīvis Rōmānus,
“barbarus” saepe appellābātur. Vīta cīvis Rōmānī erat inviolāta.
Barbarus cīvī Rōmānō nōn erat cārus; itaque vīta barbarī nōn erat
involāta. Barbarus cīvem Rōmānum nōn amābat et ā cīve Romānō nōn
amābātur. Cīvēs Rōmānī exrēmīs in terrīs saepe habitābant. Iūra
cīvium Rōmānōrum etiam extrēmīs in terrīs dīligenter servābantur. Iūdicēs
etiam extrēmīs in terrīs dīligenter servābantur. Iūdicēs cīvibus Rōmānīs
erant benignī. Sī homō clāmābat, “cīvis Rōmānus sum,” vīta est
involāta. Itaque imperium Rōmānum et in Italiā et in terrīs extrēmīs cīvēs
Romānōs servābat. Iūre imperium Rōmānum ā cīvibus Rōmānīs laudābātur.
Vocabulary
(a) 3rd declension nouns
cīvis, cīvis [3/m or f]: citizen
flūmen, flūminis [3/n]: river
iūs, iūris [3/n]: law; right
mare, maris [3/n]: sea
navis, -is [3/f]: ship
ōs, ōris [3/m]: mouth
urbs, urbis [3/f]: city
viātor, viātōris [3/m]: traveller
(b) other words
fluō, fluere [3]: flow
inviolātus, -a, -um: inviolable i.e. (their rights) cannot
be infringed
nisi: unless
servō, servāre [1]: maintain; keep; protect
superbus, -a, -um: [i] (positive) proud; distinguished [ii]
(negative) proud as in ‘haughty’ or ‘arrogant’
Tiber, -is [3/m; accusative: Tiberim]: the Tiber, the
river running through Rome
Mare Īnferum; Mare Superum
īnferus, -a, -um: lower
Mare Īnferum: the Lower Sea; this was the name commonly
used to refer to Tyrrhenum Mare, the Tyrrhenian Sea along the west
coast of Italy. It was also known as the Tuscan Sea (Tuscum Mare).
superus, -a, -um: upper
Mare Superum: the Upper Sea; this was the name commonly
used to refer to Adriaticum Mare, the Adriatic Sea, the arm of the
Mediterranean between the Italian and Balkan peninsulas.
Notes
[1] Further examples of the passive:
[i] “barbarus” saepe appellābātur. He was often
called “a barbarian”.
[ii] A good illustration of the active and passive in the
same sentence:
The Barbarian [i] did not love the Roman citizen ¦ and
[ii] was not loved by the Roman citizen.
[iii] Iūra cīvium Rōmānōrum etiam ¦
extrēmīs in terrīs ¦ dīligenter servābantur.
The rights of Roman citizens were carefully protected even
in very distant lands.
A couple of points here:
(a) extremis in terris: in far
off lands; note the preposition between the adjective and the noun
(b) iūra cīvium Rōmānōrum: the
rights of Roman citizens
iūs, iūris [3/n]: right; law
Now look at that same word in the next sentence:
Iūre ¦ imperium Rōmānum ¦ ā cīvibus Rōmānīs ¦
laudābātur.
The Roman Empire ¦ was justly praised ¦
by the Roman citizens.
Here it is in the ablative case iūre meaning
‘with justification’ i.e. justly
What a difference a case makes!
[3] temporibus antīquīs [ablative]: in ancient
times; in grammar the specific term is the ablative of time when i.e.
it refers to a specific point or period in time
[4] Multīs urbibus [dative] pulchrīs proxima est
Rōma. This was covered before but, again, note proximus, -a, -um (near)
which takes the dative case: Rome is next to many beautiful
cities.
[5]
iūra ¦ cīvium: the rights of citizens
Rōma est maxima ¦urbium. Rome is the
largest ¦ of the cities
ruīnae ¦ urbium: the ruins of the
cities
Maria ¦ Italiam ferē circumstant. The seas ¦
almost surround Italy.
Ā marī ¦ paucae nāvēs Rōmam veniunt. Few ships
come to Rome ¦ from the sea.
Take a look at those three endings: -ium, -ia, -ī. They will
be discussed in the next post.
The images show a very clear city map of Ancient Rome and
part of an 18th century map showing the Mare Īnferum and Mare Superum.
____________________
Rome is a famous city. The streets, the temples, the
buildings of the city are beautiful. The river Tiber divides the city. The sea
is not far (away) from the city. The river Tiber flows into the sea; the city
of Rome is not far from the banks of the river Tiber. The name of the sea is
the Lower Sea. Few ships come to Rome from the sea because the river is not
deep. There is also the Upper Sea for the seas almost surround Italy. There are
many great cities in Italy. Rome is the largest of the cities. Rome is the
capital of Italy. Rome is close to many beautiful cities. Travelers from many
countries come to the famous cities. In many cities of Italy there are ruins of
great buildings. The ruins of ancient cities please the travellers; they look
with pleasure at the ancient cities. In ancient times the Roman citizen was a
proud man. Unless a man was a Roman citizen, he was often called a
"barbarian." The life of every Roman citizen was inviolable. The
barbarian was not dear to the Romans; therefore, the life of the barbarian was
not inviolable. The barbarian did not love the Roman citizen, and he was not
loved by the Roman citizen. The Roman people often lived in remote areas. The
rights of Roman citizens were carefully maintained even in far-off lands. The
judges were also carefully protected in the most distant territores. The judges
were kind to Roman citizens. If a man cried out, "I am a Roman
citizen," his life was inviolable. And so Roman authority protected Roman
citizens both in Italy and in far-off lands. Roman government was justly
praised by Roman citizens.
