27.05.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [17]; on water [vii] Cicero on the interpretation of maritime law (1)

Cicero: dē inventiōne

Here, Cicero is discussing a law:

QUĪ IN ADVERSĀ TEMPESTĀTE NĀVEM RELĪQUERINT, OMNIA ĀMITTUNTŌ; EŌRUM NĀVIS ET ONERA SUNTŌ, QUĪ IN NĀVE REMĀNSERINT.

Whoever in a severe tempest desert their ship shall forfeit all of their property; the ship and the cargo shall belong to those men who remain on the ship.

āmittuntō and suntō are examples of future active imperatives:

In a sense, the term ‘future active imperative’ is a misnomer since, by its very nature, a command has not yet happened and, therefore, must happen in the future. However, the idea behind this imperative is reference to an action to be done distinctly in the future as opposed to, for example, dā mihi pecūniam │ give me the money, where the command is referring to now. Equally, the future active imperative can refer to something in general that should always be done. The key point is that neither action is immediately fulfilled. English has no equivalent of these imperatives, but it can convey a difference: “Send him that message” (now), as opposed to “Make sure you get that message sent” (at some point).

This imperative form is appropriate here since Cicero is referring to a law which is not ordering anyone to lose his property now; rather, it prescribes what is to happen whenever the stated condition is fulfilled.

3.10.25: Level 3; Artayctēs [3]; [i] syncopated verbs forms; [ii] the future active imperative

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/07/131025-level-3-artayctes-3-i-syncopated.html

Cicero discusses the way in which that law can be interpreted by different interested parties:

Duo quīdam, cum iam in altō nāvigārent, et cum eōrum alterīus nāvis, alterīus onus esset, naufragum quendam natantem et manūs ad sē tendentem animum advertērunt; misericordiā commōtī nāvem ad eum adplicārunt, hominem ad sē sustulērunt. posteā aliquantō ipsōs quoque tempestās vehementius iactāre coepit, usque adeō, ut dominus nāvis, cum īdem gubernātor esset, in scapham cōnfugeret et inde fūniculō, quī ā puppī religātus scapham adnexam trahēbat, nāvī, quod posset, moderārētur, ille autem, cuius mercēs erant, in gladium in nāvī ibīdem incumberet. hīc ille naufragus ad gubernāculum accessit et nāvī, quod potuit, est opitulātus. Sēdātis autem flūctibus et tempestāte iam commūtātā nāvis in portum pervehitur. ille autem, quī in gladium incubuerat, leviter saucius facile ex vulnere est recreātus. nāvem cum onere hōrum trium suam quisque esse dīcit.

altum, -ī [2/n]: the open sea

dominus, -ī [2/m]: owner; master

flūctus, -ūs [4/m]: wave

fūniculus, -ī [2/m]: rope; cord

gubernāculum, -ī [2/n]: steering-oar; rudder

gubernātor, -ōris [3/m]: pilot; helmsman

merx, mercis [3/f]: merchandise; goods; cargo

naufragus, -ī [2/m]: shipwrecked man

nāvis, -is [3/f]: ship

onus, oneris [3/n]: load; cargo

portus, -ūs [4/m]: harbour; port

scapha, -ae [1/f]: small boat; skiff

tempestās, -ātis [3/f]: storm

(an-) adnectō, -ere, adnexuī, adnexus [3] bind / tie to

(ap-) adplicō, -āre, adplicāvī / adplicuī, adplicātus / applicitus: (here) bring nearer

natō, -āre [1]: swim

iactō, -āre [1]: toss about

religō, -āre [1]: tie; fasten

moderor, -ārī [1/dep]: guide; steer

opitulor, -ārī [1/dep]: assist; help

Exercise

Three men are referred to in this scenario:

A: the owner of the ship

B: the owner of the cargo

C: a shipwrecked man

To which of these men do the following statements refer? Tick A, B or C. Some may refer to more than one man.

____________________

(1) A; (2) C; (3) A, B, C; (4) C; (5) A, B; (6) B; (7) B; (8) A; (9) C; (10) A; (11) B; (12) C

26.05.27: Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Gesta Rōmānōrum; Dē sequendā ratiōne [3]

[5]

Ait pater: "Quandō prius dīxistī, quod obligāta iūrāmentō fuistī etc., tāle obligāmentum nōn valet, quia praetendit ad malum fīnem, scīlicet ad mortem. Iūrāmentum semper dēbet esse ratiōnābile et ideō iūrāmentum tuum nūllum est.

Ad aliam ratiōnem, quandō dīxistī, quod istud est commendābile, quod uxor moriātur prō virō, nōn valet, quia, licet sint ūnum in corpore per carnālem affectiōnem, tamen in animā duo sunt, quae abinvicem reāliter differunt. Et ideō nōn valet, quod allēgāstī." Puella haec audiēns nōn poterat ulterius arguere, sed dictīs patris adhaesit, nec ulterius sē ipsam praecipitāre volēbat, nec amplius virō suō cōpulārī.

(1) “Ait pater … nūllum est.”

[a] Why does her father reject her view of an oath?

[b] What is his interpretation?

(2) “Ad aliam … cōpulārī.”

[i]

[a] Translate: … licet sint ūnum in corpore per carnālem affectiōnem, tamen in animā duo sunt, …

[b] Explain the use of the subjunctive.

[ii] Et ideō nōn valet, quod allēgāstī

The word in bold is an example of a syncopated verb form. Explain the meaning of the term.

[iii] dictīs patris adhaesit:

Identify the case of the noun in bold and explain why it is being used here.

____________________

[5]

(1)

[a] it is directed towards an evil end, namely death.

[b] an oath must always be reasonable

 

(2)

[i]

[a] Although they are one in body through physical affection, nevertheless they are two in soul.

[b] concessive clause introduced by licet [ = although]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20concessive%20clauses

[ii] a syncopated form is one where letters or syllables have been omitted; allēgāstī is shortened from allēgāvistī

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/syncopated%20verb%20forms

[iii] dative plural; adhaereō takes the dative; she adhered to [ = accepted] her father’s words

____________________

[5]

The father said: “Since you said earlier that you were bound by an oath, etc., such an obligation is not valid, because it tends towards an evil end, namely death. An oath must always be reasonable, and therefore your oath is invalid.

As for the other argument, when you said that it is praiseworthy that a wife should die for her husband, it is not valid, because, although they are one in body through physical affection, nevertheless in soul they are two, which differ from one another in reality. And therefore what you have argued is not valid.”

The girl, hearing this, could no longer argue further, but she adhered to her father’s words; and she no longer wished either to throw herself down again or to be united with her husband.

25.05.27: Level 3+ (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [23]: The advance against the Belgae

Hīs nuntiīs litterīsque mōtus Caesar duās legiōnēs in citeriōre Galliā novās cōnscrīpsit atque Quintum Pedium lēgātum mīsit quī in interiōrem Galliam dūceret. Ipse, ubi prīmum frūmentī cōpia esse coepit, ad exercitum vēnit. Dat imperāta Senonibus reliquīsque Gallīs, quī fīnitimī Belgīs erant, ut cognōscant atque sē dē hīs rēbus certiōrem faciant. Hī omnēs nuntiāvērunt manūs cōgī, exercitum in ūnum locum dūcī. Rē frūmentāriā comparātā castra movet et diēbus quindecim ad fīnēs Belgārum pervenit. Rēmī, quī proximī Galliae ex Belgīs sunt, ad eum lēgātōs mīsērunt, quī dīcerent sē imperāta Caesaris esse factūrōs.

[1] subjunctive usage

(1) purpose:

quī + subjunctive; when the focus is on a person who is to perform the action

… Quintum Pedium lēgātum mīsit quī in interiōrem Galliam dūceret.

… and sent Quintus Pedius, his envoy, to lead [literally: who would lead] (them) into interior Gaul.

ad eum lēgātōs mīsērunt, quī dīcerent …

… (they) sent envoys to him to say [literally: who would say]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/02/180526-level-3-subjunctive-38-dependent.html

(2) indirect command:

Dat imperāta Senonibus reliquīsque Gallīs … ut cognōscant atque sē … certiōrem faciant.

He gives orders to the Senones and the remaining Gauls … to find out [literally: in order that they may find out…] and to inform him [literally: in order that they may make him more certain]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/02/050526-level-3-subjunctive-32-dependent.html

[2] indirect statement

(1) Hī omnēs [i] nuntiāvērunt ¦ [ii] manūs [iii] cōgī, ¦ [ii] exercitum in ūnum locum [iii] dūcī.

They all [i] reported ¦ that [ii] bands (of men) [iii] were being collected ¦ (and) that [ii] an army [iii] was being led into one place.

06.01.26: Level 3; indirect statement; the accusative-infinitive [7]; the present passive infinitive

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/10/060126-level-3-indirect-statement.html

(2) ad eum lēgātōs mīsērunt, [i] quī dīcerent ¦ [ii] sē imperāta Caesaris [iii] esse factūrōs

… (they) sent envoys to him [i] to say ¦ [ii] that they [iii] would do / were going to do Caesar’s commands

02.02.26: Level 3; indirect statement; the accusative-infinitive [18]; future active infinitive

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/020226-level-3-indirect-statement.html

02.02.26: Level 3; indirect statement; the accusative-infinitive [19]; future active infinitive: practice (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/020226-level-3-indirect-statement_14.html

05.02.26: Level 3; indirect statement; the accusative-infinitive [20]; future active infinitive: practice (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/050226-level-3-indirect-statement.html

[3] ablative absolute

rē frūmentāriā comparātā | with the grain supply having been procured

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/ablative%20absolute

____________________

Moved by these reports and letters, Caesar enrolled two new legions in hither Gaul, and sent Quintus Pedius, his envoy, to lead them into interior Gaul. He himself, as soon as a supply of grain began to be available, came to the army. He gives orders to the Senones and the remaining Gauls, who were neighbours to the Belgae, to find out and (to) inform him about these matters. They all reported that bands of men were being collected and that an army was being led into one place. After the grain supply has been procured, he moves camp and within fifteen days arrives at the borders of the Belgae. The Remi, who are the closest of the Belgae to Gaul, sent envoys to him to say that they would do Caesar's commands.

24.05.27: Level 1-2 (review); Julia (a Latin Reader) [14]

Mettius Curtius

Ōlim in Forō Rōmānō terra discessit, et hiātus lātus altusque appāruit. Cīvēs omnēs saxa plūrima in hiātum dēiēcērunt; hiātus autem nūllō modō explēbātur, sed in diēs crēscēbat. Tum cīvēs perterritī, "Sine dubiō," inquiunt, "Dī Immortālēs summam calamitātem Rōmae praedīcunt."

Itaque Rōmānī ē Librīs Sibyllīnīs ōrāculum petīvērunt. Ē Librīs Sibyllīnīs sacerdōtēs respōnsum mīrum cīvibus nūntiāvērunt. "Numquam," inquiunt, "hiātus in Forō Rōmānō explēbitur, nisi eō omnium rērum pretiōsissimam Rōmānī dēiēcerint."

Cīvēs igitur ad Forum aurum, argentum, gemmās contulērunt, et in hiātum dēiēcērunt. Nihilō magis autem hiātus explētus est. Tum Mettius Curtius, eques Rōmānus, "Ūna rēs," exclāmāvit, "Rōmānīs est omnibus aliīs pretiōsior. Nec aurum nec argentum, sed iuvenēs Rōmānōs, arma Rōmāna, in summō honōre habēmus. Ego iuvenem Rōmānum, arma Rōmāna, Dīs Mānibus dēdicō."

Tum armīs splendidīs ōrnātus, equum incitāvit et in hiātum dēsiluit. Statim hiātus explētus est, nec posteā iterum terra discessit.

appāreō, -ēre [2]: appear, become visible

cōnferō, -ferre [irreg.]: bring together

crēscō, -ere [3]: grow

dēdicō, -āre [1]: dedicate

discēdō, -ere [3]: go away, part asunder

expleō, -ēre [2]: fill up

hiātus, -ūs [4/m]: gap, hole

Librī Sibyllīnī: Sibylline Books, books of prophecy possessed by the Romans

modō: after the manner of

modus, -ī [2/m]: manner, method

nihilōmagis: none the more

ornātus, -a, -um: adorned, equipped

plūrimus, -a, -um: very many, most

sacerdōs, -ōtis [3 m/f]: priest, priestess

___________________

At one time, in the Roman Forum, the earth split open, and a wide and deep hole appeared. All the citizens threw very many stones into the hole; however, the hole was not filled in any way, but grew day by day. Then the terrified citizens said, “Without a doubt, the Immortal Gods are predicting a great disaster for Rome.”

And so the Romans sought an oracle from the Sibylline Books. The priests announced a strange response to the citizens from the Sibylline Books. “Never,” they said, “will the hole in the Roman Forum be filled unless the Romans throw into it the most precious thing of all.”

Therefore, the citizens brought gold, silver and jewels to the Forum and threw them into the hole. However, the chasm was no more filled than before. Then Mettius Curtius, a Roman horseman, exclaimed, “One thing is more precious to all the Romans than all other things. We hold neither gold nor silver, but Roman young men and Roman arms, in the highest honour. I dedicate a Roman youth and Roman arms to the Spirits of the Dead.”

Then, adorned with splendid armour, he spurred on his horse and leapt into the hole. Immediately the hole was filled, and afterwards the earth never split open again.

 

23.05.27: Level 1; First Latin Lessons (20); 1st / 2nd declension adjectives [3]; adjectives in -er

Images #1 and #2

[i] 1st / 2nd declension adjectives, like some 2nd declension masculine nouns, can end in -er. These will also decline in exactly the same way and, as with this noun type:

(1) some lose the /e/ of the nominative singular when endings are added

• aeger, aegra, aegrum: sick [aeger, -gra, -grum]
• impiger, -gra, -grum: energetic; diligent
• pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum: beautiful [pulcher, -chra, -chrum]

(2) some adjectives retain the /e/

• miser, misera, miserum: wretched [miser, -a, -um]

LINKS

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/declensions%3A%202nd%20in%20-er

22.05.27: Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Gesta Rōmānōrum; Dē sequendā ratiōne [2]

[3]

At illa: "Nōlō, et hoc per tālem ratiōnem probō. Cum autem quis iūrāmentō est obligātus, tenētur adimplēre. Ego iūrāvī virō meō, quod prō eius amōre mē ipsam occīderem. Ideō nōn dēlīquī, sī iūrāmentum implēre volō; ergō extrā societātem tuam nōn dēbeō expellī. Item nūllus dēbet pūnīrī prō eō, quod est commendābile. Sed cum vir et uxor sint ūnum in carne secundum deum, commendābile est, quod uxor prō amōre virī suī moriātur.

[i] In what order are the following statements first made?

a praiseworthy action

details of the oath itself

has done no wrong

husband and wife united before god

obligation to fulfil an oath

refusal to agree

should not be exiled

should not be punished

[ii] Translate: Sed cum vir et uxor sint ūnum in carne secundum deum, commendābile est, quod uxor prō amōre virī suī moriātur.

[iii] What type of word are both expellī and pūnīrī?

[4]

“Unde in Indiā aliquandō erat lēx, quod uxor post mortem virī suī prae dolōre et amōre sē ipsam combūrere dēbēret, vel vīva cum eō in sepulcrum pōnī. Et ideō, ut mihi vidētur, nōn dēlīquī, quandō mē ipsam interficiō propter amōrem virī meī."

“Et ideō, ut mihi vidētur, nōn dēlīquī, quandō mē ipsam interficiō propter amōrem virī meī.”

What explanation does she give for this?

____________________

[3]

[i]

a praiseworthy action [7]

details of the oath itself [3]

has done no wrong [4]

husband and wife united before god [8]

obligation to fulfil an oath [2]

refusal to agree [1]

should not be exiled [5]

should not be punished [6]

[ii] But since husband and wife are one flesh according to God, it is praiseworthy for a wife to die out of love for her husband.

[iii] present passive infinitives

[4]

In India there was once a law requiring a wife, after her husband's death, either to burn herself out of grief and love or to be placed alive with him in the tomb.

____________________

[3]

But she said: “I do not wish to [agree], and I prove this by the following reasoning. When, however, someone is bound by an oath, he is obliged to fulfil it. I swore to my husband that I would kill myself out of love for him. Therefore, I have done no wrong, if I wish to fulfil my oath; therefore, I should not be expelled from your community. Likewise, no one should be punished for that which is praiseworthy. But since husband and wife are one flesh according to God, it is praiseworthy that a wife should die out of love for her husband.”

[4]

“Concerning this, at one time in India there was a law that a wife, after the death of her husband, should burn herself because of grief and love, or be placed alive with him in the tomb. And therefore, as it seems to me, I have done no wrong when I kill myself because of my love for my husband.”

21.05.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [16]; on water [vi] vocabulary review; parts of a ship

[1] Match the English and the Latin

[2] Label the images:

āncora, -ae [1/f]

antenna, -ae [1/f]

aplustre, -is [3/n]

carīna, -ae [1/f]

forus, -ī [2/m]

fūnis, -is [3/m]

gubernāculum, -ī [2/n]

mālus, -ī [2/n]

prōra, -ae [1/f]

puppis, -is [3/f]

rēmus, -ī [2/m]

rōstrum, -ī [2/n]

vēlum, -ī [2/n]

vēxillum, -ī [2/n]

____________________

20.05.27: Level 3 / 3+; GCSE 2021 [iii]; Section B; Passage 3; + supplementary questions

Translate Passage 3 into English

Later Paetus is condemned to death and once again Arria puts her husband’s needs before her own.

Names

Scribonianus, Scriboniani (m): Scribonianus (the governor of Dalmatia)

Claudius, Claudii (m): Claudius (the Roman emperor)

Paetus, Paeti (m): Paetus

Arria, Arriae (f): Arria

Words

rebellio, rebellionis (f): revolt, rebellion

finio, finire, finivi, finitus: I finish, end

dubito, dubitare, dubitavi: I hesitate

doleo, dolere, dolui: I hurt

dolor, doloris (m): pain

Supplementary

Passage 3 is the last question of the GCSE language paper. It is clearly testing knowledge of many grammatical concepts that will become increasingly important as the student moves up to the UK AS and A2 examinations; in this group, I classify those as Level 4. The following questions did not form part of the examination.

paucos post annos Scribonianus, homo audax, rebellionem contra Claudium imperatorem fecit. sperabat enim se ipsum, Claudio victo, imperatorem futurum esse. rebellione tamen quinque diebus oppressa, Scribonianus statim interfectus est.

interea Paetus, qui Scriboniano auxilium dederat, a militibus Claudii Romam tractus est. ibi Claudius ei imperavit ut vitam gladio finiret. sed Paetus tam perterritus erat ut id facere nollet. tum Arria, cum intellegeret cur maritus dubitaret, gladium rapuit. ‘noli timere!’ ei dixit, corpus suum gladio simul vulnerans. ‘ecce! hoc vulnus, quod mihi dedi, non dolet.’ ita locuta Paeto gladium reddidit. nam Arria Paetum adeo amabat ut ipsa dolorem pati vellet.

Successful translation of Passage 3 in the examination itself would show recognition of the grammatical features contained within it. Therefore, the questions below are simply testing your familiarity with grammatical terms and your ability to make brief comment about them.

[1] Identify the grammatical features in bold; (1) give the grammatical term and (2) give one other relevant piece of information about each one, for example:

noli timere: (1) negative imperative; (2) 2^nd person singular [or: followed by an infinitive]

The second pieces of information given in the answers are suggestions; there are other valid statements that can be made about each form.

[i] Claudio victo

[ii] Scribonianus statim interfectus est

[iii] qui Scriboniano auxilium dederat

[iv] corpus suum gladio simul vulnerans

[v] hoc vulnus, quod mihi dedi

[vi] ita locuta

[2] What types of subjunctive are being used?

[i] Claudius ei imperavit ut vitam gladio finiret.

[ii] tam perterritus erat ut id facere nollet; adeo amabat ut ipsa dolorem pati vellet

[iii] tum Arria, cum intellegeret …

[iv] … cur maritus dubitaret

[3] Explain the use of the ablative case:

[i] rebellione tamen quinque diebus oppressa

[ii] a militibus Claudii Romam tractus est

[4]

[i] sperabat enim se ipsum … imperatorem futurum esse.

[a] What type of structure is being used here?

[b] Why is se used?

[c] What part of speech is futurum esse?

____________________

Supplementary

[1]

[i] (1) ablative absolute; (2) noun + perfect passive participle in the ablative case [or: literally: with X having been Y-ed]

[ii] (1) perfect passive; (2) 3^rd person singular [or: perfect passive participle + present tense of esse; or: from interficio, -ere (3-io)]

[iii] (1) pluperfect (active, indicative); (2) 3^rd person singular [or: perfect stem + imperfect of esse]

[iv] (1) present active participle; (2) nominative singular [or: = (who / which / while) …. ing; or: from vulnerāns, -antis]

[v] (1) relative pronoun; (2) neuter accusative singular [or: agrees with antecedent in gender and number; or: from qui, quae, quod]

[vi] (1) perfect participle of a deponent verb; (2) passive form but active meaning, i.e. having spoken [or: from loquor, -i, locutus sum]

[2]

[i] indirect command

[ii] result

[iii] cum-clause; circumstantial

[iv] indirect question

[3]

[i] time within which

[ii] agent

[4]

[a] indirect statement

[b] refers back to the subject i.e. he was hoping that he (himself) ….

[c] future active infinitive

17.10.26: Level 1; Follow-up on the previous post [2]: words and their ‘stories’; tightrope walkers, crucial questions and Reggae Music

Referring to:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/1101999429077991

Words have ‘stories’ and sometimes long journeys; knowing the story can help you to remember the word, even if it is more like a question in Who Wants to be a Millionaire?

We’ll look again at the three nouns Magister Andrews uses in his video:

(1) fūnis, -is [3/m]: rope; cord; line

Engl: funambulist < Lat: fūnambulus, -ī [2/m]: tightrope walker < fūnis (rope) + ambulāre (to walk)

(2) collum, -ī [2/n]: neck

Engl: collar < Lat: collāre, -is [3/n]: collar; neckband < collum (neck)

(3) The one, however, that involves greater ‘exploration’ is:

[i] crux, crucis [3/f]: any wooden instrument of punishment or execution, particularly (but not exclusively) a cross

agunt eum praecipitem poenae cīvium Rōmānōrum, quōs partim secūrī percussit, partim in vinculīs necāvit, partim … in crucem sustulit. (Cicero)

The punishments of Roman citizens are driving him mad [literally: headlong; ‘over the edge’], some of whom he has delivered to the executioner [literally: struck with an axe], others he has put to death in prison [literally: (while) in chains], others he has crucified … [literally: raised up onto a cross].

This quotation is from Cicero’s prosecution of Gaius Verres, the corrupt governor of Sicily. In the Roman world, crucifixion was normally reserved for non-citizens, slaves, and low classes of criminals. Among the litany of accusations against Verres was that he had crucified Roman citizens - meaning he had seriously overstepped the mark and violated their rights.

[ii] However, the word can have a transferred meaning of feeling tormented or tortured:

… sed fierī sentiō et excrucior (Catullus) | … but I feel it happening and I am tortured

[iii] It can refer to any form of ‘trouble’ or ‘misery’ often with ‘mala’ (evil / bad):

Quae tē mala crux agitat? (Plautus) | What tormentor troubles you?

[iv] And if your local political candidate comes knocking at your door …

Ī in malam crucem! | Go to the Devil! / Go and be hanged!

[v] But what about the English derivatives crux and crucial?

They are good examples of how an original meaning changes over time. Let’s go back to Plautus:

Quae tē mala crux agitat? | What tormentor troubles you?

The character is not referring to an instrument of punishment but to some form of difficulty.

In English, crux – taken directly from Latin – can convey a puzzle or difficulty, but its meaning has broadened to the idea of a critical turning point or core issue, often of a problem:

“The crux of the matter is that people just don’t vote.”

“The movie hits its dramatic crux an hour in”

The adjective crucial is from French (there was no original Latin adjective); in French its initial meaning was ‘cross-shaped,’ later adopting the English definition of ‘crucial’ meaning ‘decisive’.

However …

“Delbert Wilkins is the most crucial pirate radio DJ in Brixton.”

A fictional character created by Lenny Henry, Delbert Wilkins uses the term 'crucial' to describe his mixture of, for example, Reggae and Hip-Hop as very good, i.e. the polar opposite of what the Latin crux originally meant.

17.10.26: Level 1; Follow-up on the previous post [1]

Referring to:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/1101999429077991

Again, Magister Andrews produces a short video which, if you want, you can explore in more depth:

One key concept and two “steps up” i.e. don’t try to do everything at once. Step [1] is absolute basic Latin. Step [2] makes you aware that words in Latin change. Step [3], i.e. it is not a first step, explains briefly what particular changes are.  

Step [1]

[i] Quid est hoc? | What is this?

[ii] Haec est crux. | This is a cross.

Why does it change from hoc to haec?

[i] If you don’t know what it is, then you don’t know what gender it is. Therefore, Latin uses the neuter form to ask the question. German, Spanish and Russian, for example, do the same:

Gmn: Was ist das?

Sp: ¿Qué es eso?

Russ: Chto eto? (Что это?)

[ii] However, Magister Andrews knows what it is – and he knows the gender: crux is feminine, and the feminine form for ‘this’ is haec:

Haec est crux. | This is a cross.

But you can avoid the issue by simply saying: crux est | it’s a cross

The next noun he uses is fūnis (cord / string)

[i] Don’t know what it is?

Quid est hoc?

[ii] Now you do (it’s masculine):

Hic est fūnis. | This is a cord / string.

Fūnis est. | It’s a cord / string.

[iii] The third noun he uses is collum (neck); it is a neuter noun and so hoc is used for both the question and the answer.

Quid est hoc?

Hoc est collum meum. | This is my neck.

Collum meum est. | It’s my neck.

Therefore, three key words:

this: hic (masculine), haec (feminine), hoc (neuter)

Step [2]

If you are new to Latin then you need to be aware from an early stage that words change depending on what they are doing in a sentence. Becoming familiar with these changes takes time and patience, but Magister Andrews gives some examples.

[i] Crux in fūne est. | The cross is on the string.

in collō | on the neck

Lat: in = Engl: in or on

Step [3]

crucem in collō pōnō | I put the cross on the neck (or: on my neck; Latin does not normally use the possessive ‘my’ if it’s obvious who you’re talking about)

2 points to note:

[i] Here, crux is the direct object i.e. the action is being done to the cross: -em indicates this.

[ii] crucem: a large number of Latin nouns change the stem before an ending is added:

crux > cruc¦em

This is not as random as it first appears; there are patterns and English has many derivatives where that change is shown.

crux > cruc¦em > Engl. crucify; crucifixion; excruciating; cruciform (in the shape of a cross); crucial

19.05.27: Level 1-2 (review); Julia (a Latin Reader) [13] (5)

Omnēs hōs annōs Mārs fīliōs suōs dīligenter cōnservābat, et tandem geminīs, iam adolēscentibus omnia mōnstrāvit. Tum frātrēs, propter mātris avīque iniūriās īrātī, "Sine dubiō," inquiunt, "Amūlius hārum rērum poenās gravissimās dabit."

Pāstōrēs igitur omnēsque agricolās ad arma incitāvērunt, et cum exercitū rūsticō ad urbis portās contendērunt. Rēx quoque cōpiās contrā Rōmulum et Remum dūxit, sed rem nōn bene gessit. Superātus et necātus est. Tum adolēscentēs avum suum petīvērunt, et in rēgnum redūxērunt. Maximē gaudēbant oppidānī, quod iterum Numitōrem, iūstum rēgem, Albae Longae vidēbant.

Posteā Rōmulus urbem sibi aedificāvit, et Rōmam, dē suō nōmine, vocāvit. Rōmānī lupam, quod Rōmulum tam dīligenter cūrāverat, semper in summō honōre habēbant. Statuam lupae in Capitōliō posuērunt.

Haec statua in Capitōliō diū stābat, sed tandem fulmine dēiecta est. Alia tamen posteā in Capitōliō posita est. Hanc vōs quoque fortasse ōlim vidēbitis. Nec statuam sōlum sed lupam vīvam vidēbitis, nam Rōmānī, urbis suae orīginis memorēs, etiam nunc lupam vīvam in Capitōliō habent.

avus, -ī [2/m]: grandfather

Capitōlium, -ī [2/n]: the Capitol, the principal hill in Rome

dēiciō, -ere [3-iō]: throw down

gaudeo, -ēre [2/semi-deponent]: rejoice

statua, -ae [1/f]: statue

____________________

Throughout all these years Mars was carefully protecting his sons, and at last, when the twins were now grown up, he showed them everything. Then the brothers, angry because of the wrongs done to their mother and grandfather, said, "Without doubt Amulius will pay the very heaviest penalties for these deeds."

Therefore they roused the shepherds and all the farmers to arms, and with a country army hastened to the gates of the city. The king also led his forces against Romulus and Remus, but did not conduct the campaign well. He was defeated and killed. Then the young men sought out their grandfather, and led him back into the kingdom. The townspeople were rejoicing especially because they were seeing Numitor, the rightful king, at Alba Longa once again.

Afterwards Romulus built a city for himself, and called it Rome, from his own name. The Romans always held the she-wolf in the highest honour, because she had cared for Romulus so carefully. They placed a statue of the she-wolf on the Capitoline.

This statue stood on the Capitoline for a long time, but at last was struck down by a thunderbolt. Another, however, was afterwards placed on the Capitoline. This one perhaps you too will one day see. And you will see not only the statue but also a living she-wolf, for the Romans, mindful of the origin of their city, even now have a living she-wolf on the Capitoline.

18.05.27: Level 1; First Latin Lessons (19); 1st / 2nd declension adjectives [2]

I: Sextus bonus agricola est, et multum frūmentum habet. Magnum tēctum et parvum hortum habet. In hortō cum fīliā et fīliō nunc stat. Vesperī saepe in viīs cum amīcīs ambulat. Multī Sextum amant quod benignus est.

II: Fīlius Sextī in magnō bellō pugnat, et gladium et scūtum habet. Pūblius quoque, amīcus Sextī, in bellō pugnat.

III: Librōs multōrum poētārum laudō, sed librōs tuōs nōn laudō. Poēta bonus nōn es. Fāma tua nōn magna est.

IV: Nauta sōlus in viā stat. Amīcum exspectat. Sed amīcus in tēctō tuō manet. Nautam nōn videt.

V: Nunc amīcus ex tēctō properat. Nauta laetus est quod amīcum videt. Nauta et amīcus nōn diū in viā ambulant, quod amīcus dēfessus est.

VI: Cūr, amīce, ex tēctō tuō properās? Ex tēctō meō properō quod nautam in viā videō.

VII: Amīcus tuus sum, sed cōnsilium tuum nōn laudō. Nōn est cōnsilium bonum. Pūblius habet cōnsilium bonum.

VIII: Sextus magnōs equōs habet. Tēctum meum est magnum, casa tua est parva. Amīcōs benignōs habeō. Puerī in silvā sunt sōlī. Nauta est validus, sed fīlius nautae nōn est validus.

(1) vocabulary

• bellum, -ī [2/n]: war
• cōnsilium, -ī [2/n]: plan
• scūtum, -ī [2/n]:  shield
• gladius, -ī [2/m]: sword
• pugnō, -āre [1]: fight
• dēfessus, -a, -um: tired; weary

(2)

bonus agricola: a good farmer

poēta bonus: a good poet

librōs multōrum poētārum laudō: I praise the books of many poets

nauta laetus est: the sailor is happy

nauta est validus: the sailor is strong

nauta sōlus in viā stat: the sailor stands alone on the road

Although the nouns agricola, poēta and nauta are first declension, they are masculine in gender and so the adjective becomes masculine (see the previous unit: note [4]).

(3)

As in English, adjectives in Latin can stand alone and act as nouns:

Robin Hood robs from the rich to give to the poor.

In the text:

Multī Sextum amant | Many (people) love Sextus

(4) Give the case and number of the adjectives in bold:

[i] Nauta sōlus in viā stat.

[ii] Puerī in silvā sunt sōlī.

[iii] Fīlius Sextī in magnō bellō pugnat.

[iv] Sextus magnōs equōs habet.

[v] Nōn est cōnsilium bonum.

[vi] Cōnsilium tuum nōn laudō.

[vii] Librōs tuōs nōn laudō.

[viii] Fāma tua nōn magna est.

[ix] Cūr, amīce, ex tēctō tuō properās?

[x] (a) Multī Sextum amant quod (b) benignus est.

[xi] Multum frūmentum habet.

[xii] Librōs multōrum poētārum laudō.

[xiii] Amīcōs benignōs habeō.

____________________

[i] Nominative singular

[ii] Nominative plural

[iii] Ablative singular

[iv] Accusative plural

[v] Nominative singular

[vi] Accusative singular

[vii] Accusative plural

[viii] Nominative singular

[ix] Ablative singular

[x] (a) Nominative plural; (b) Nominative singular

[xi] Accusative singular

[xii] Genitive plural

[xiii] Accusative plural

____________________

I: Sextus is a good farmer, and has a lot of grain. He has a large house and a small garden. He is now standing in the garden with his daughter and son. In the evening he often walks in the streets with his friends. Many people love Sextus because he is kind.

II: Sextus' son is fighting in a great war, and has a sword and a shield. Publius also, Sextus' friend, is fighting in the war.

III: I praise the books of many poets, but I do not praise your books. You are not a good poet. Your reputation is not great.

IV: The sailor is standing alone on the road. He is waiting for his friend. But his friend is staying in your house. He does not see the sailor.

V: Now the friend hurries out of the house. The sailor is happy because he sees his friend. The sailor and his friend do not walk on the road for long, because the friend is tired.

VI: "Why are you hurrying out of your house, friend?" "I am hurrying out of my house because I see the sailor on the road."

VII: I am your friend, but I do not praise your plan. It is not a good plan. Publius has a good plan.

VIII: Sextus has large horses. My house is large; your cottage is small. I have kind friends. The boys are alone in the forest. The sailor is strong, but the sailor's son is not strong.

17.05.27: Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Gesta Rōmānōrum; Dē sequendā ratiōne [1]

[1]

Erat quīdam imperātor potēns sed tyrannus, quī quandam puellam, rēgis fīliam, pulchram valdē, dēspōnsāvit. Factā dēspōnsātiōne ambō adinvicem iūrāmentum fēcērunt, quod, sī quis eōrum prius morerētur, alter prae nimiō amōre sē ipsum occīderet.

Accidit semel, quod imperātor iste ad partēs longinquās sē trānstulit et diū moram ibīdem trāxit. Volēns probāre uxōrem ad eam nūntium dēstināvit, ut eī dē morte suā dīceret. Audiēns hoc uxor propter iūrāmentum, quod ante fēcerat virō suō, dē altō monte sē praecipitāvit, ut morerētur. Vērumtamen mortua nōn est, sed īnfrā breve tempus sānitātī est restitūta. Deinde iterātō sē ipsam volēbat praecipitāre, ut morerētur.

[i] Translate: Ambō adinvicem iūrāmentum fēcērunt, quod, sī quis eōrum prius morerētur, alter prae nimiō amōre sē ipsum occīderet.

[ii] How did the emperor test his wife, and what was the reason for it?

[iii] How did his wife react when she heard the news?

[iv] What was the result of her first attempt?

[v] How do we know she was determined to achieve her aim?

[vi] Explain the use of the subjunctive in: ad eam nūntium dēstināvit, ut eī dē morte suā dīceret

[2]

Pater eius hoc audiēns eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret. Illa vērō nōlēbat cōnsentīre. Ait pater: "Ex quō nōn vīs mihi cōnsentīre et oboedīre, celeriter extrā societātem meam exeās!"

[i] Translate: Pater eius hoc audiēns eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret.

[ii] What was her reaction, and how did her father respond?

[iii] Explain the use of the subjunctive in:

[a] eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret

[b] celeriter extrā societātem meam exeās

____________________

[1]

[i] They both swore an oath  to one another  that, if either of them should die first,  the other would kill himself or herself  out of excessive love .

[ii] He went to distant regions and remained there for a long time; he then sent her a messenger to tell her of his death.

[iii] She threw herself from a high mountain.

[iv] She did not die but was restored to health after a short time.

[v] She wanted to throw herself down again in order to die.

[vi] purpose clause: ut + imperfect subjunctive after dēstināvit; ad eam nūntium dēstināvit, ut eī dē morte suā dīceret | he then sent her a messenger to tell her of his death [literally: in order that / so that he might / would tell her …].

https://adckl2.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20purpose

[2]

[i] Her father, hearing this, ordered her not to obey her husband's command and oath.

[ii] She refused to agree. Her father ordered her to leave his community immediately.

[iii]

[a] indirect command after praecēpit; eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret | he ordered her not to obey [literally: he gave the order to her that she should not obey]

https://adckl2.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20indirect%20commands

[b] jussive subjunctive expressing a command; the 2^nd person frequently translates as ‘you should’

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/01/280326-level-3-subjunctive-7.html

____________________

There was once a powerful emperor, but a tyrant, who became betrothed to a certain young woman, the very beautiful daughter of a king. After the betrothal had taken place, they both swore an oath to one another that, if either of them should die first, the other would kill himself or herself out of excessive love.

It happened one day that this emperor travelled to distant regions and stayed there for a long time. Wishing to test his wife, he sent a messenger to her to tell her of his death. When his wife heard this, because of the oath which she had previously made to her husband, she threw herself from a high mountain in order to die. Nevertheless, she did not die, but within a short time she was restored to health. Then she again wished to throw herself down in order to die.

Her father, hearing this, ordered her not to obey her husband's command and oath. However, she did not wish to agree. Her father said: "Since you do not wish to agree with me and obey me, leave my community at once!"