29.08.26: Level 3+; Conditional clauses [2]: real conditions (2) further examples

In these clause types, English and Latin writers vary the indicative tenses, and there are numerous permutations. They may choose a specific tense since they have a particular idea in mind that they wish to convey, for example:

If you read that book, you will love it.

If you haven’t read that book, then I’m disappointed.

[i] There is often a parallel between the Latin verb usage and the English translations, for example:

Sī mē amās [present], ¦ cūrā [imperative], ut ... (Cicero)

• If you love me [present], ¦ [imperative] see to it that …

Tū sī litterās ad Sicyōniōs habēs [present], advolā [imperative] in Formiānum (Cicero)

• If you have [present], a letter to send to the Sicyonians, hasten [imperative] to Formiae.

Quid faciēmus [future], sī aliter nōn possumus [present]? (Cicero)

• What shall we do [future], if we cannot (do) otherwise [present]?

Sī fuit [perfect] invidiōsa senātūs potentia… quid iam cēnsēs [present] fore? (Cicero)

• If the power of the Senate was [simple past] unpopular … what do you think [present] it will be like now?

[ii] Where it differs most is when the conditional clause refers to the future. The distinction between the future and the future perfect in the conditional clause is whether the speaker is focussing on the action being carried out [future], or on the completion of the action [future perfect].

Mihi crēde, ¦ sī legēs [future] haec, ¦ dīcēs [future] mīrābilis vir est (Cicero)

• Trust me, if you read [present; La: will read] them, ¦ you will say “The man is a wonder.”

Latīnum sī perfēcerō [future perfect], ¦ ad tē mittam [future] (Cicero)

• [Latin (literally): If I shall have finished the Latin version, I shall send it to you.]
• If I finish [present] / If I have finished [present perfect] the Latin version, ¦ I shall send [future] it to you.

[iii] A subjunctive verb may be used in the apodosis:

Sī quid habēs certius, velim scīre (Cicero)

• If you have anything more certain, I would like to know.

The subjunctive in this context is not affecting the conditional clause but is simply being used independently to convey a polite request.

In this next example, a jussive subjunctive is used:

Quī hominēs quam prīmum, sī stāre nōn possunt, corruant (Cicero)

• If these men cannot stand, let them fall as soon as possible.

____________________

Below are further examples; compare and contrast the verb usage.

Nunc, sī quid in eā epistulā, quam ante diem XVI Kal. Maiās dedistī, fuit historia dignum, scrībe quam prīmum (Cicero)

• So, if there was anything worth saying in the letter of the 16th of April, write at once.

Sī quī Graecī iam Rōmam ex Asiā … vēnērunt … (Cicero)

• If any Greeks have already come to Rome from Asia …

Quid iīs fīet, sī hūc Paulus vēnerit (Cicero)

• What will happen to them if Paulus comes [will have come] here?

Sī quid rēs feret, cōram inter nōs cōnferēmus (Cicero)

• If any point arises [will arise], we will discuss it together face-to-face.

Aliī sī scrīpserint, mittēmus ad tē (Cicero)

• If others (will) have written (about it), we shall send them to you.

Tū, sī tibi placuerit liber, cūrābis ut … (Cicero)

• If the book pleases [will have pleased] you, you will see to it that …

Eō sī ante eam diem nōn vēneris, Rōmae tē fortasse vidēbō (Cicero)

• If you do not get [will not have come] there before that date, perhaps I shall see you at Rome.

Sī dīxerō mendācium, solēns meō mōre fēcerō (Plautus)

• If I tell [shall have told] a lie, I shall have done so as I usually do according to my custom.

Tū, sī ūnō in locō es futūrus, crēbrās ā nōbīs litterās exspectā (Cicero)

• If you are going to be in one place, expect many letters from us.

Intereā scrībās [subjunctive], sī quid intellegēs (Cicero)

• Meanwhile, if you learn anything, you should write to me

Sī iam es Rōmae … velim [subjunctive] mittās … (Cicero)

• If you are already in Rome, I would like you to send …

An overdose of conditional clauses:

Quam ob rem, sī mē amās tantum, quantum profectō amās, sī dormīs, expergīscere, sī stās, ingredere, sī ingrederis, curre, sī curris, advolā. (Cicero)

Quam ob rem, sī mē amās tantum, quantum profectō amās, … │ Therefore, if you love me as much as you really love me …

sī dormīs, expergīscere │ if you are sleeping, wake up

sī stās, ingredere │ if you are standing, get moving

sī ingrederis, curre │ if you are moving, run

sī curris, advolā │ if you are running, fly

29.08.26: Level 3+; Conditional clauses [1]: introduction; real conditions (1)

Take your life in your hands and suggest to Norman, the owner of the Bates Motel in Hitchcock’s Psycho how he should deal with his “mother” …

MARION

You know, if anyone ever talked to me, the way I heard... the way she spoke to you, …

NORMAN

When you love someone, you don't do that to them, even if you hate them. Oh, I don't hate her.  I hate... what she's become. I hate... the illness.

MARION (Slowly, carefully)

Wouldn't it be better if you put her in... someplace...

Ah well, if Marion hadn’t taken a wrong turning, she would not have met Norman – but she did take a wrong turning, and she did meet him and, well, you’ll need to watch the movie…

Among all Latin clause types, conditional clauses show the closest parallel with English: in both languages, verb forms change to express the speaker’s perspective.

Image #1: conditional clauses can be broadly classified according to type.

Here, we will look at the types under the overall heading of real conditions: the speaker treats the situation in the conditional clause as true, rather than as imaginary or unreal, and are used with the indicative mood in Latin:

(a) General truths:

If you heat ice, it melts.

If he (ever) saw a poor man in the street, he used to give him some money.

(b) Specific situations considered likely in context, whether present or past:

If he thinks that, he is mistaken.

If he did that, he made a mistake.

(c) Specific situations in the future which, again, the speaker treats as likely to happen:

If gives me the money, I will buy the cake.

Grammar books may give slightly different terms for these conditional types, but the key point is that none of the conditions express any doubt, but rather as true or likely to be true.

[1] present / past

[A] Sī tū exercitusque valētis [present indicative], ¦ [B] bene est [present indicative] (Cicero)

• If you and the army are well, ¦ it is well.

[A] Sī iam melius valēs [present indicative], ¦ [B] vehementer gaudeō [present indicative] (Cicero)

• If you are in better health now, ¦ I am very glad.

[A] Sī quī māgnīs in eō genere exstitērunt [perfect indicative], ¦ [B] nōn satis Graecōrum glōriae respondērunt [perfect indicative] (Cicero)

• If any have shown themselves of great genius in that department, ¦ they have not competed sufficiently with the glory of the Greeks. 

[A] Sī peccāvī [perfect indicative], ¦ [B] īnsciēns fēcī [perfect indicative] (Terence)

• If I did / have done wrong, ¦ I did / have done so unwittingly.

The sentences above have two clauses:

[A] The conditional clause introduced by sī (if); this is called the protasis and states the condition on which [B] depends.

[B] The main clause is called the apodosis.

It is useful to remember those two terms, since they are commonly used in grammar books.

[A: PROTASIS] Sī illum relinquō,¦ [B: APODOSIS] eius vītae timeō (Terence)

• If I abandon him, ¦ I fear for his life.

[A: PROTASIS] Sī quī exīre volunt,¦ [B: APODOSIS] cōnīvēre possum (Cicero)

• If any wish to depart, ¦ I can keep my eyes shut.

[A: PROTASIS] Sī est in exsiliō [PROTASIS], … ¦ B: APODOSIS] quid amplius postulātis? (Cicero)

• If he is in exile, ¦ what more do you ask?

[2] future more vivid

[i] In grammar the term future more vivid conditional refers to an outcome that the speaker thinks / perceives is more likely to happen

[ii] Unlike English, a future condition in the protasis is expressed by sī + the future or future perfect tense:

[A] Quod sī legere aut audīre volētis [future indicative] . . . [B] reperiētis [future indicative] … (Cicero)

• If you (will) want to read or hear it … you will find …

[A] Egō ad tē, ¦ [B] sī quid audierō [future perfect indicative] citius, ¦ scrībam [future indicative]. (Cicero)

• I shall write to you ¦ if I hear [literally: shall have heard) anything sooner.

[A] Haec sī attulerīs [future perfect indicative], [B] cēnābis [future indicative] bene (Catullus)

• If you bring [literally: will have brought] these things, ¦ you will dine well.

[3] general / iterative:

[i] When (if) you love someone, you don't do that to them.

Whenever he saw / If he ever saw a poor man …; the term iterative may be applied to this type of condition to define an action that happens / happened repeatedly:

English can convey these conditions, with ‘when(ever)’ rather than ‘if’; Latin uses sī:

Sī pēs condoluit, sī dēns, ferre nōn possumus (Cicero)

• If (ever) a foot or a tooth has begun to ache, ¦ we can't bear it.

[ii] The idea may be emphasised by the addition of quandō, but not as a replacement for sī:

Sī quandō in puerīs ante alter dēns nāscitur ... (Celsus)

• If ever in children a second tooth appears  …

[iii] When referring to the past, the imperfect or pluperfect tense can be used in the conditional clause:

Sī legēbant, inveniēbant disciplīnam.

• If (whenever) they read, they acquired / used to acquire knowledge.

Sī pauperem in viā vidēbat / vīderat, semper eum adiuvāre cōnābātur.

• If he saw a poor man in the street, he would always try to help him.

Sī tribūnī, sī legiō industriam innocentiamque adprobāverant, retinēbat ōrdinem (Tacitus)

• If the tribunes or legion approved of his industry and innocence, he would retain his rank.

[4]  ‘if’ is also used in English to ask an indirect question e.g. I want to know if he’s arrived = I want to know whether he’s arrived (or not).

Latin does not use sī to convey that idea, but num and utrum … an

Level 3+; Subjunctive [68] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (5); num

Level 3+; Subjunctive [69] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (6); utrum … an …

[5] In all conditional constructions [A] and [B] may, as in English, be reversed:

[B] Experiar et dīcam [future indicative], ¦ [A] sī poterō [future indicative], plānius (Cicero)

• I shall try and explain, ¦ if I can [literally: if I shall be able; future indicative] more clearly (Cicero)

[5] tenses can be mixed:

Convincam [future indicative], ¦ sī negās [present indicative] (Cicero)

• I shall prove it, ¦ if you deny it.

Sī pēs condoluit [perfect indicative], sī dēns, ¦ ferre nōn possumus [present indicative] (Cicero)

• If (ever) a foot or a tooth has begun to ache, ¦ we can't bear it.

Cēnābis [future indicative] bene, mī fabulle, apud mē / paucīs, ¦ sī tibi dī favent [present indicative], ¦ diēbus (Catullus)

• You will dine well, my Fabullus, at my house, ¦ in a few days’ time if the gods favour you.

Sī ille exitum nōn reperiēbat [imperfect indicative], ¦ quis nunc reperiet [future indicative]? (Cicero)

• If he was not able to find any way out, ¦ who will find one now?

Misera plūs perdidī [perfect indicative], sī nēmō crēdit [present indicative] (Quintilian)

• Wretched I have lost more ¦ if noone believes me.

28.08.26: Level 3; Reading (review); [33] [i] The magician Circe

Another episode of Odysseus’ journey home:

Ulixēs, postquam magnā cum audāciā diū per undās nāvigāvit, īnsulam Circae intrāvit. Ibi ille vir callidus nōnnūllōs sociōs in vīllam Circae mīsit. Quibus illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; venēnō domitōs in suēs mūtāvit. Ūnus ex iīs, quī venēnum negāverat, ēvāsit docuitque Ulixem. Quem Mercurius quoque dē dolīs Circae docuerat remediumque praebuerat et eī suāserat: “Hōc remediō ā mē datō perīculum dolōsque deae vītābis!” Quibus verbīs monitus Ulixēs illō remediō tūtus vīllam Circae intrāvit, Circam ipsam gladiō ursit, dolōs perniciōsōs eius arcuit. Iussit eam illōs sociōs iam in suēs mūtātōs rūrsus in virōs mūtāre. Sīc ūnā cum sociīs vīvus ex illā īnsulā ēvāsit.

Circa, -ae [1/f]: (alternative to Circē) name of a witch in Greek mythology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circe

venēnum, -ī [2/n]: (here) magic potion; poison

sūs, suis [3 m/f]: pig

[1] The connecting relative

[i] The following is incorrect in standard written English:

I bought a book. *Which I gave* to my brother.

English cannot begin a sentence with a relative pronoun that refers to something / someone in the previous sentence. The idea would be expressed in the following ways:

I bought a book which I gave to my brother [i.e. as one sentence, which introducing a subordinate clause]

I bought a book. I gave it to my brother. [i.e. two sentences; English would most commonly avoid repeating the noun by using a pronoun]

 I bought a book and I gave it to my brother [i.e. as one sentence with a coordinating conjunction]

[ii] Latin, however, can begin a sentence with the relatives quī, quae, quod referring to something / someone in the previous sentence, known in grammar as the antecedent:

Ibi ille vir callidus nōnnūllōs sociōs [antecedent] in vīllam Circae mīsit. Quibus [connecting relative] illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; …

Such sentences can be translated in different ways, the choice determined by style and context:

(a)   as separate sentences with the inclusion of a pronoun referring to the antecedent

There, that clever man sent some of his companions into her house. The goddess offered them wine mixed with poison; …

(b)   combining those sentences with ‘and’; that neatly conveys the “connecting” nature of quī, quae, quod

… and the goddess offered them …

(c)   a relative clause

… docuitque Ulixem [antecedent]. Quem [connecting relative] Mercurius quoque dē dolīs Circae docuerat …

… and informed Ulysses whom Mercury had also informed about Circe’s tricks, …

[iii] Translations are not interchangeable; a common example is when the connecting relative refers to an entire preceding statement where a relative clause would sound clumsy:

“Hōc remediō ā mē datō perīculum dolōsque deae vītābis!” Quibus verbīs monitus Ulixēs …

 “With this remedy given by me, you will avoid the danger and the tricks of the goddess.” Having been warned by these words, Ulysses … [or: …, and having been warned …]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/connecting%20relative

[2] Taking care when translating:

Latin word order is far more flexible than English and so, when translating, be conscious of what is and is not acceptable in standard English translation:

Quibus illa dea vīnum venēnō mixtum praebuit; venēnō domitōs in suēs mūtāvit.

The goddess offered them wine mixed with poison; *having been subdued by the potion*, she changed them into pigs.

Although “having been subdued by the potion” is the correct translation, its position in the English sentence above would indicate that she had been subdued by the potion, which is incorrect. Rewording is needed to be clear who that phrase is referring to:

“… once / after / when they had been subdued by the potion, she changed them …”

____________________

Ulysses, after he had sailed for a long time over the waves with great boldness, entered the island of Circe. There that clever man sent some companions into Circe’s house. The goddess offered them wine mixed with a (magic) potion; after they had been subdued by the potion, she changed them into pigs.

One of them, who had refused the potion, escaped and informed Ulysses. Mercury also had warned him about the tricks of Circe, had provided a remedy, and had advised him: “With this remedy given by me, you will avoid the danger and the tricks of the goddess.”

(Having been) warned by these words, Ulysses, safe because of that remedy [ = protected by that remedy], entered Circe’s house, threatened Circe herself with his sword, and drove away / warded off her deadly tricks. He ordered her to change those companions, who had already been turned into pigs, back into men. Thus he escaped alive from that island together with his companions.

27.08.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [33] (1) comprehension [1]

PART ONE

Paucīs ante diēbus Iūlia epistulam accēpit. Amīca Iūliae quae in urbe habitat eam vidēre maximē vult. Itaque māter Carolī et Mariae ad tēctum amīcae invītātur. Laeta est quod diū amīcam nōn vīdit. Quamquam via est longa et paucōs diēs aberit, iter facere cōnstituit.

Tandem omnia sunt parāta et Iūlia ā casā discēdit et ad urbem prōcēdit. Nunc nēmō est in casā. Omnēs absunt. Pater in nāvigiō est. Per noctēs Carolus cum Cassiō, Maria cum Helenā manet. Itaque nocte nēmō domī est. “Eruntne omnia tūta?” rogat Maria. “Ita,” respondet māter, quod Claudius saepe hūc ex oppidō veniet et casam dēfendet. Nōn est necesse timēre. Deinde iānuam casae claudit.

[i] When did Julia receive a letter? (1)

[ii] What does the letter say? (2)

[iii] Why is she happy? (2)

[iv] How do we know she is determined to see her? (3)

[v] Why is nobody in the house at night? (4)

[vi]What does Maria ask? (1)

[vii] Why does the mother say there’s no need to be afraid? (2)

____________________

[i] a few days ago (1)

[ii] Her friend in the city (1) very much wants to see her (1).

[iii] She has not seen her friend (1) for a long time (1).

[iv] She decides to make the journey (1) although the road is long (1) and she will be away for a few days (1).

[v] Julia leaves for the city (1); the father is away on a ship; (1) Carolus stays with Cassius (1); Maria stays with Helena (1)

[vi] “Will everything be safe?”

[vii] Claudius will often come from the town (1) and defend the house (1).

26.08.26: Level 1 (review); vocabulary [10]: actions (1)

[1] Which of the following are related to:

(a) sight

(b) touch

(c) smell

(d) taste

(e) hearing

(f) speech

(g) positive emotional reactions

(h) negative emotional reactions

(i) mental processes

amō

audiō

auscultō

bibō

clāmō

cōgitō

dīcō

doleō

edō

fleō

gaudeō

gustō

lacrimō

loquor

metuō

olfaciō

pōtō

rīdeō

sapiō

spectō

subrīdeō

tangō

timeō

videō

____________________

(a) sight: videō, spectō

(b) touch: tangō

(c) smell: olfaciō

(d) taste: gustō, sapiō, edō, bibō, pōtō

(e) hearing: audiō, auscultō

(f) speech: loquor, dīcō, clāmō

(g) positive emotional reactions: rīdeō, subrīdeō, gaudeō, amō

(h) negative emotional reactions: lacrimō, fleō, doleō, timeō, metuō

(i) mental processes: cōgitō

25.08.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [32] [4]

Carolus et Cassius erunt mīlitēs ubi erunt virī. Sīc dēsīderant. Itaque fābulās magistrae dē bellīs antīquīs laetē audiunt. Hodiē quod nix est alta et diēs nōn est grātus, in scholā discipulī manent. Magistra haec legit. Legiō Rōmāna interdum circiter tria mīlia mīlitum habēbat. Exercitus multōs ducēs habēbat. Aliī erant lēgātī, aliī erant centuriōnēs. Imperātor omnī exercituī imperābat. Centuriōnēs centum mīlitēs dūcēbant. Tōtus exercitus ācriter pugnābat ubi perīculum erat grave. Sī imperātor hostēs vincēbat, interdum corōnam ā cīvitāte excipiēbat. Haec erat praemium. Sīc Rōmānī imperātōrēs bonōs laudābant.

Omnēs discipulī hās fābulās laudant. Aestāte eī in silvā sunt et mīlitēs sunt. In duās partēs dīvīsī sunt. Ūna pars agmen facit et ad flūmen prōcēdit. Sub colle quīdam ex discipulīs castra pōnunt. Locus nōn est inīquus. Reliquī multās rēs faciunt. Aliī sunt nūntiī, aliī sunt vigilēs. Alia pars discipulōrum est exercitus hostium. Signum datur et hostēs appropinquant. Tēla iaciunt et nūntiōs in omnēs partēs mittunt. Carolus et eius comitēs vāllum celeriter aedificant quod impetūs hostium timent. Post hoc vāllum sē cēlant. Tēla hostium ā comitibus Carolī excipiuntur et iterum eadem ad hostēs mittuntur. Proelium graviter pugnātur. Lēgātī centuriōnēsque bene dūcunt. Tandem fuga hostium est grāta Carolō et eius comitibus. Nēmō interficitur. Subitō signum audītur. Magistra vocat. Discipulī respondent. Fīnis proeliī est.

[1] Below are nouns in this passage referring to war and the military. They are listed in their nominative forms. Match the Latin and English.

[2] Fill in the missing genitive case endings listed below. Some are used more than once.

1. corōna, corōn_____
2. fuga, fug_____
3. nūntius, nunti_____
4. legātus, legāt_____
5. bellum, bell_____
6. proelium, proeli_____
7. signum, sign_____
8. tēlum, tēl_____
9. vāllum, vāll_____
10. castra, castr_____
11. vigil, vigil_____
12. imperātor, imperāt_____
13. centuriō, centuriō_____
14. legiō, legiō_____
15. dux, du_____
16. agmen, agm_____
17. milēs, mil_____
18. hostēs, host_____
19. exercitus, exercit_____
20. impetus, impet_____

-ae; -cis; -ī; -inis; -is; -it is; -ium; -nis; -ōris; -ōrum; -ūs

[3] (1) Identify the case, number of the word in bold (2) give the nominative singular, declension and gender, and (3) explain as precisely as possible why the case is being used.

[i] fābulās … audiunt

[ii] imperātor omnī exercituī imperābat

[iii] multās rēs faciunt

[iv] fuga hostium

[v] impetūs hostium timent

[vi] post hoc vāllum sē cēlant

[vii] fuga … est grāta (a) Carolō (b) et eius comitibus

[viii] Tēla … (a) ā comitibus (b) Carolī excipiuntur

[ix] corōnam ā cīvitāte excipiēbat

[x] aestāte eī in silvā sunt

____________________

[1]

[2]

1. corōna, corōnae
2. fuga, fugae
3. nūntius, nuntiī
4. legātus, legātī
5. bellum, bellī
6. proelium, proeliī
7. signum, signī
8. tēlum, tēlī
9. vāllum, vāllī
10. castra, castrōrum
11. vigil, vigilis
12. imperātor, imperātōris
13. centuriō, centuriōnis
14. legiō, legiōnis
15. dux, ducis
16. agmen, agminis
17. milēs, militis
18. hostēs, hostium
19. exercitus, exercitūs
20. impetus, impetūs

[3]

[i] fabulās: (1) accusative plural; (2) < fabulae, -ae [1/f]; (3) direct object of audiunt

[ii] exercituī: dative singular < exercitus, -ūs [4/m]; used with imperō, -āre (to command), the verb regularly followed by the dative case

[iii] rēs: accusative plural < rēs, -eī [5/f]; direct object of faciunt

[iv] hostium: genitive plural < hostis, -is [3/m]; indicates possession [the flight of the enemies]

[v] impetūs: accusative plural < impetus, -ūs [4/m]; direct object of timent

[vi] vāllum: accusative singular < vāllum, -ī [2/n]; with preposition post

[vii]

(a) Carolō: dative singular < Carolus, -ī [2/m]; indirect object of grāta [pleasing to Carolus]

(b) comitibus: dative plural < comes, comitis [3/m]; indirect object of grāta [pleasing to his companions]

[viii]

(a) comitibus: ablative plural < comes, comitis [3/m]; with preposition ā to express ablative of agent [the missiles are caught by the companions]

(b) Carolī: genitive singular < Carolus, -ī [2/m]; possession; [the companions of Carolus; Carolus’ companions]

[ix] civitāte: ablative singular < civitās, -tātis [3/f]; with preposition ā to express from the state

[x] aetāte: ablative singular < aetās, -tātis [3/f]; ablative of time when [in summer]

24.08.26: Level 1 (review); vocabulary [9]: military

Label the image:

balteus, -ī [2/m]

caliga, -ae [1/f]

cingulum, -ī [2/n] mīlitāre

crista, -ae [1/f]

cuspis, cuspidis [3/f]

galea, -ae [1/f]

gladius, -ī [2/m]

hasta, -ae [1/f]

lōrīca, -ae [1/f] segmentāta

mūrus, -ī [2/m] / moenia, -um [3/n/pl]

ōcrea, -ae [1/f]

pinna, -ae [1/f]

porta, -ae [1/f]

scūtum, -ī [2/n]

specula, -ae [1/f]

____________________

1. cuspis, cuspidis [3/f]: spear point / tip
2. crista, -ae [1/f]: crest (on helmet)
3. galea, -ae [1/f]: helmet
4. hasta, -ae [1/f]: spear
5. pinna, -ae [1/f]: battlement / parapet crenellation
6. specula, -ae [1/f]: watchtower / lookout post
7. lōrīca, -ae [1/f] segmentāta: segmented armor (Roman body armour)
8. balteus, -ī [2/m]: shoulder belt / sword strap
9. gladius, -ī [2/m]: sword (short Roman sword)
10. cingulum, -ī [2/n] mīlitāre: military belt
11. porta, -ae [1/f]: gate
12. mūrus, -ī [2/m] / moenia, -um [3/n/pl]: wall / defensive walls
13. scūtum, -ī [2/n]: shield (large Roman shield)
14. ōcrea, -ae [1/f]: greave (leg armour)
15. caliga, -ae [1/f]: military sandal / boot

23.08.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [90] dependent uses [15] reported / indirect reason: quod and quia

If a journalist in a UK newspaper writes …

“The manager resigned because he stole money”

…he may well be sued! If it was never proved, then the journalist – to protect himself – would write:

“The manager resigned because he allegedly stole money”

Now the journalist is safe: he is reporting what the reason may have been or what somebody else claimed rather than a factual statement that is the journalist’s personal opinion. In other words, it becomes an indirect reason.

Similarly:

He could not have been guilty because he was abroad at the time.

He could not have been guilty because, he said / he claimed, he was abroad at the time.

The inclusion of a parenthetical he said, or he claimed moves the statement from a factual reason to one that is alleged, one that somebody else said rather than what the speaker believes.

That ‘shift’ cannot be conveyed in English by means of a verb form. In Latin, however, a shift from the indicative to the subjunctive mood can do precisely that.

[i] The conjunctions quod and quia are – by far – most often found with the indicative mood:

Quia ego hanc amō et haec mē amat (Plautus)

• Because I love her and she loves me.

Cūr igitur pācem nōlō? Quia turpis est. (Cicero)

• Why then do I not wish for peace? Because it is disgraceful.

Hoc ad tē scrīpsī, quod is mē accūsāre dē tē solēbat (Cicero)

• I wrote this to you because he was in the habit of grumbling to me about you.

Ita fit ut adsint proptereā quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia periculum vītant (Cicero)

• So it happens that they attend because they follow duty but are silent because they are avoiding danger.

In these examples Cicero gives his own reasons.

[ii] However, when the speaker is not giving his own reason, but the reason of somebody else, quod and quia will be with a verb in the subjunctive:

Noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs quod somnum capere nōn posset [subjunctive] (Cicero)

• Themistocles used to walk about at night because he could not sleep.

i.e. the speaker is recounting the reason given by Themistocles; the speaker is not offering his own reason.

We can describe this as a reported reason or an indirect reason. It does not have to be an “allegedly” statement such as you would find in a newspaper!

Compare: Noctū ambulābam quod somnum capere nōn poteram [indicative].

• I used to walk about night because I could not sleep.

This example from Cicero shows both indicative and subjunctive, the subjunctive stating an alleged or unreal reason as oppposed to factual reason i.e. the reason he himself gives:

• Haec idcircō omittō quod nōn gravissima sint [subjunctive], sed quia nunc sine teste dīcō [indicative] (Cicero)

And I omit these matters not because they are not very serious, but because now I am declaring without any witness.

[iii] Further examples

(1) With indicative

[i] Sōla hic mihi nunc videor, quia ille hinc abest quem ego amō praeter omnēs (Plautus)

• I do seem so lonely here now, because the one I love best is gone. 

[ii] Cūr negās? / Quia vēra didicī dīcere (Plautus)

• Why do you deny it? / Because I’ve learned to tell the truth.

[iii] Quia diēī extrēmum erat, proelium nōn inceptum [est] (Sallust)

• As it was almost the end of the day, the battle did not  start.

[iv] Quem locum Marius, quod ibi rēgis thēsaurī erant, summā vī capere intendit (Sallust)

• Marius tried to take this place with all of his forces, because the king’s treasures were there.

[v] Quia id quod neque est neque fuit neque futūrum est mihi praedicās (Plautus)

• Because what you tell me is not so, nor has it been, nor will it be.

[vi] Sed senātūs cōnsulta duo iam facta sunt odiōsa, quod in cōnsulem facta putantur (Cicero)

• But two decrees of the Senate which have already been passed are unpopular because they are thought to be directed against the consul.

(2) With subjunctive; although far less common, the subjunctive is being used to refer to what somebody else ‘claimed’ or thought:

[i] Mea māter īrāta est quia nōn redierim (Plautus)

• My mother is angry because I did not return.

[ii] Rediit quod sē oblītum nesciō quid dīceret (Cicero)

• He returned because he said he had forgotten something.

Note: nesciō quid; nesciō is not functioning here as a verb but as part of a set expression meaning ‘something’ [literally: I don’t know what]

[iii] Reprehendit, quia nōn semper quiērim (Cicero)

• He blames me because I have not always been able.

i.e. Cicero recounts somebody else’s reason for the blame; he is not saying that it is factual.

[iv] Sī quis requīrit, cūr Rōmae nōn sim … quia frequentiam illam nōn facile ferrem.

• If anyone asks why I am not in town … "because I could not put up with the crowd of visitors."

This is a nice example where the translator “quotes” what, in Cicero’s mind, other people might be ‘alleging’.

[v] What somebody saw in a dream:

Ego laeta vīsa sum quia soror vēnisset (Plautus)

• I seemed happy because my sister had come.

[vi] A two part statement from Cicero that describes allegations made against Manlius by Pomponius, a tribune of the plebs:

L. Mānliō … cum dictātor fuisset, M. Pompōnius tr(ibūnus). pl(ēbis). diem dīxit, (1) quod is paucōs sibi diēs ad dictātūram gerendam addidisset; crīminābātur etiam, (2) quod Titum fīlium … ab hominibus relēgāsset et rūrī habitāre iussisset.

L. Mānlīō … cum dictātor fuisset │ When L. Manlius … had been dictator, …

M. Pompōnius, tribūnus plēbis, diem dīxit │ M. Pomponius,  a tribune of the plebs named the day [i.e. for his trial = indicted him]

(1) quod is paucōs sibī diēs ad dictātūram gerendam addidisset;

• because he (Manlius) had added a few days for conducting his dictatorship [ = had extended his dictatorship beyond its expiration]

crīminābātur etiam │ he was also accused

(2) quod Titum fīlium … ab hominibus relēgāsset et rūrī habitāre iussisset.

• because he had banished his son Titus … from people [ = from having companionship with others] and had ordered him to live in the countryside.

[iv] Be careful not to misinterpret the use of quod in indirect statements. In certain circumstances quod can be translated as the conjunction ‘that’ but they are (1) referring to known facts or (2) offering reasons rather than reporting what, for example somebody said or thought:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/11/170226-level-3-indirect-statement.html

(1) quod: (the fact) that …

quod rediit ¦ nōbīs mīrābile vidētur (Cicero)

• (the fact) that he returned ¦ seems marvellous to us

praetereō ¦ quod eam sibī domum dēlēgit (Cicero)

• I pass over ¦ the fact that he chose that house for himself

i.e. these two do not ‘report’ an event, but express a reaction to something already known

(2) verbs of emotion / feeling are followed by either quod or quia; a way of differentiating the use of quod (or quia) in this context is mostly to interpret the meaning as because rather than ‘that’.

Quod scrībis . . . gaudeō.

• I am glad ¦ that you write.

i.e. The writer is offering a reason why he is glad; “I am glad because you are writing”

Gaudēmus quod ad tempus adestis.

• We rejoice ¦ that you are here on time.

Faciō libenter quod eam nōn possum praeterīre.

• I am glad ¦ that I cannot pass it by.

Gaudet quod vivit.

• He rejoices ¦ that he is alive.

Opportūnissima rēs accidit quod Germānī vēnērunt.

• A very fortunate thing happened, ¦ (namely) that the Germans came.

Optimum, quod sustulistī.

• It is a very good thing ¦ that you have removed [him].

Dolet mihi quod tū nunc stomachāris (Cicero)

• I'm sorry ¦ that you're angry now.

… quī ¦ quia nōn habuit ā mē turmās equitum ¦ fortasse suscēnset (Cicero)

• … who perhaps feels angry ¦ that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.

23.08.26: Level 3; Reading (review); [32] In the giant’s cave (2)

Ulixēs autem sociōs haec iussit et eīs suāsit: “Satis diū ille nōs ursit et torsit, satis diū superbiae eius cessimus. Ecce flammae, ecce palūs: sī hic pālus ārdēbit, Polyphēmum oculō spoliābimus. Id nōbīs certē continget, nisi timidī erimus!”

Quibus verbīs postquam animōs eōrum auxit, eōs sēcum dūxit, ūnā cum eīs Polyphēmum temptāvit. Iam pālus in oculō eius haesit, iam Polyphēmus clāmāvit, iam amīcōs vocāvit: “Nēmō mē oculō spoliāvit, nēmō mē necāre studet!

At frūstrā clāmat, nam ā nūllō adiuvātur. Cēterī enim Cyclōpēs: “Sī nēmō tē spoliat, sī ā nūllō necāris, nūllīus auxiliō egēs!”

Vocabulary

cyclōps, -is [3/m]: cyclops, the one-eyed giant from Greek and Roman mythology, of which Polyphemus was one:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphemus

image: head of a Cyclops (1^st c. AD); Colosseum, Rome

pālus, -ī [2/m]: pole, stake

contingō, -ere, contigī, contāctus [3] (here: + dative) to fall to one’s lot; befall; happen (to)

• id nōbīs … continget: this will happen to us

Notes: conjugation ‘patterns’

[i] Most (not all) 1^st conjugation verbs have the same pattern of principal parts e.g. 

necō, necāre, necāvī, necātus [1]: kill

spoliō, spoliāre, spoliāvī, spoliātus [1]: rob; deprive

temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus [1]: attempt

Other conjugations, however, are far less predictable, but there are some patterns to note in perfect tense stems of 2^nd conjugation verbs:

-s(s)-; -x-

ardeō, ardēre, ārsī, ārsus [2]: burn

haereō, -ēre, haesī, haesum (supine: no passive) [2]: (here) stick

suadeō, suādēre, suāsī, suāsus [2]: persuade

torqueō, -ēre, torsī, tortus [2]: torment; torture

urgeō, -ēre, ursī, - [2]: oppress

iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussus [2]: command; order

augeō, augēre, auxī, auctus [2]: increase; strengthen

(b) -uī-

egeō, -ēre, eguī, egitūrus (fut. act. participle: no passive; no supine) [2]: lack; be without

studeō, -ēre, studuī, - [2]: (here) try

From the previous section of this text:

• adhibeō, adhibēre, adhibuī, adhibitus [2]: apply; use
• admoneō, admonēre, admonuī, admonitus [2]: warn; remind
• arceō, arcēre, arcuī, arcitus [2]: keep (off / away); prevent
• praebeō, praebēre, praebuī, praebitus [2]: offer
• sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī,  sustentus [2]: endure; withstand

[ii] Bear in mind at this level that ‘patterns’ cannot be assumed, for example:

cēdō, cedere, cessī, cessus [3]: yield

dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductus [3]: lead

From the previous section of this text:

• domō, domāre, domuī, domitus [1]: subdue; tame
• impleō, implēre, implēvī, implētus [2]: fill
• colō, colere, coluī, cultus [3]: worship; honour
• tribuō, tribuere, tribuī, tribūtus [3]: grant; bestow

___________________

But Ulysses ordered these things to his companions and persuaded them: “For a long time that creature has oppressed and tormented us; for a long time we have yielded to his arrogance. Look—flames, look—a stake: if this stake burns, we will deprive Polyphemus of his eye. This will certainly happen for us, if we are not cowardly!”

After he had strengthened their spirits with these words, he led them with him and, together with them, attacked Polyphemus. Now the stake stuck in his eye, now Polyphemus shouted, now he called his friends: “Nobody has deprived me of my eye, nobody is trying to kill me!”

But he shouts in vain, for he is helped by no one. For the other Cyclopes say: “If nobody is injuring you, if you are being killed by no one, you need no help from anyone!”

22.08.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [32] [3]

Carolus et Cassius erunt mīlitēs ubi erunt virī. Sīc dēsīderant. Itaque fābulās magistrae dē bellīs antīquīs laetē audiunt. Hodiē quod nix est alta et diēs nōn est grātus, in scholā discipulī manent. Magistra haec legit. Legiō Rōmāna interdum circiter tria mīlia mīlitum habēbat. Exercitus multōs ducēs habēbat. Aliī erant lēgātī, aliī erant centuriōnēs. Imperātor omnī exercituī imperābat. Centuriōnēs centum mīlitēs dūcēbant. Tōtus exercitus ācriter pugnābat ubi perīculum erat grave. Sī imperātor hostēs vincēbat, interdum corōnam ā cīvitāte excipiēbat. Haec erat praemium. Sīc Rōmānī imperātōrēs bonōs laudābant.

Omnēs discipulī hās fābulās laudant. Aestāte eī in silvā sunt et mīlitēs sunt. In duās partēs dīvīsī sunt. Ūna pars agmen facit et ad flūmen prōcēdit. Sub colle quīdam ex discipulīs castra pōnunt. Locus nōn est inīquus. Reliquī multās rēs faciunt. Aliī sunt nūntiī, aliī sunt vigilēs. Alia pars discipulōrum est exercitus hostium. Signum datur et hostēs appropinquant. Tēla iaciunt et nūntiōs in omnēs partēs mittunt. Carolus et eius comitēs vāllum celeriter aedificant quod impetūs hostium timent. Post hoc vāllum sē cēlant. Tēla hostium ā comitibus Carolī excipiuntur et iterum eadem ad hostēs mittuntur. Proelium graviter pugnātur. Lēgātī centuriōnēsque bene dūcunt. Tandem fuga hostium est grāta Carolō et eius comitibus. Nēmō interficitur. Subitō signum audītur. Magistra vocat. Discipulī respondent. Fīnis proeliī est.

Find the Latin:

[1]

[i] a battle is fought

[ii] no one is killed

[iii] the signal is heard

[iv] the signal is given

[v] weapons (missiles) are caught and sent back again

[vi] they have been/are divided

[2]

They will be soldiers when they are men

[3]

[i] some are …, others are …

[ii] some were …, others were …

[iii] all the pupils

[iv] (he) issued orders to all the army / every part of the army

[v] in all directions

[vi] into two parts

[vii] one part

[viii] another part

[ix] some of the pupils

[x] the whole army was fighting

____________________

[1]

[i] proelium … pugnātur

[ii] nēmō interficitur

[iii] signum audītur

[iv] signum datur

[v] tēla … excipiuntur … et iterum … mittuntur

[vi] dīvīsī sunt

[2]

erunt mīlitēs ubi erunt virī

[3]

[i] aliī sunt …, aliī sunt ….

[ii] aliī erant …, aliī erant ….

[iii] omnēs discipulī

[iv] omnī exercituī imperābat

[v] in omnēs partēs

[vi] in duās partēs

[vii] ūna pars

[viii] alia pars

[ix] quīdam ex discipulīs

[x] tōtus exercitus …pugnābat

21.08.26: Level 1 (review); vocabulary [8]: saying what’s wrong (2)

[1] Label the images:

pedēs mihi dolent

oculus mihi dolet

dentēs mihi dolent

digitus mihi dolet

aurēs mihi dolent

pēs mihi dolet

oculī mihi dolent

auris mihi dolet

dēns mihi dolet

digitī mihi dolent

[2] Label the images:

bracchium mihi dolet

calcāneum mihi dolet

caput mihi dolet        

collum mihi dolet       

crūs mihi dolet           

dorsum mihi dolet     

genū mihi dolet

manus mihi dolet       

nāsus mihi dolet        

tālus mihi dolet          

umerus mihi dolet

venter mihi dolet

____________________

[1]

[2]