22.05.27: Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Gesta Rōmānōrum; Dē sequendā ratiōne [2]

[3]

At illa: "Nōlō, et hoc per tālem ratiōnem probō. Cum autem quis iūrāmentō est obligātus, tenētur adimplēre. Ego iūrāvī virō meō, quod prō eius amōre mē ipsam occīderem. Ideō nōn dēlīquī, sī iūrāmentum implēre volō; ergō extrā societātem tuam nōn dēbeō expellī. Item nūllus dēbet pūnīrī prō eō, quod est commendābile. Sed cum vir et uxor sint ūnum in carne secundum deum, commendābile est, quod uxor prō amōre virī suī moriātur.

[i] In what order are the following statements first made?

a praiseworthy action

details of the oath itself

has done no wrong

husband and wife united before god

obligation to fulfil an oath

refusal to agree

should not be exiled

should not be punished

[ii] Translate: Sed cum vir et uxor sint ūnum in carne secundum deum, commendābile est, quod uxor prō amōre virī suī moriātur.

[iii] What type of word are both expellī and pūnīrī?

[4]

“Unde in Indiā aliquandō erat lēx, quod uxor post mortem virī suī prae dolōre et amōre sē ipsam combūrere dēbēret, vel vīva cum eō in sepulcrum pōnī. Et ideō, ut mihi vidētur, nōn dēlīquī, quandō mē ipsam interficiō propter amōrem virī meī."

“Et ideō, ut mihi vidētur, nōn dēlīquī, quandō mē ipsam interficiō propter amōrem virī meī.”

What explanation does she give for this?

____________________

[3]

[i]

a praiseworthy action [7]

details of the oath itself [3]

has done no wrong [4]

husband and wife united before god [8]

obligation to fulfil an oath [2]

refusal to agree [1]

should not be exiled [5]

should not be punished [6]

[ii] But since husband and wife are one flesh according to God, it is praiseworthy for a wife to die out of love for her husband.

[iii] present passive infinitives

[4]

In India there was once a law requiring a wife, after her husband's death, either to burn herself out of grief and love or to be placed alive with him in the tomb.

____________________

[3]

But she said: “I do not wish to [agree], and I prove this by the following reasoning. When, however, someone is bound by an oath, he is obliged to fulfil it. I swore to my husband that I would kill myself out of love for him. Therefore, I have done no wrong, if I wish to fulfil my oath; therefore, I should not be expelled from your community. Likewise, no one should be punished for that which is praiseworthy. But since husband and wife are one flesh according to God, it is praiseworthy that a wife should die out of love for her husband.”

[4]

“Concerning this, at one time in India there was a law that a wife, after the death of her husband, should burn herself because of grief and love, or be placed alive with him in the tomb. And therefore, as it seems to me, I have done no wrong when I kill myself because of my love for my husband.”

21.05.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [16]; on water [vi] vocabulary review; parts of a ship

[1] Match the English and the Latin

[2] Label the images:

āncora, -ae [1/f]

antenna, -ae [1/f]

aplustre, -is [3/n]

carīna, -ae [1/f]

forus, -ī [2/m]

fūnis, -is [3/m]

gubernāculum, -ī [2/n]

mālus, -ī [2/n]

prōra, -ae [1/f]

puppis, -is [3/f]

rēmus, -ī [2/m]

rōstrum, -ī [2/n]

vēlum, -ī [2/n]

vēxillum, -ī [2/n]

____________________

20.05.27: Level 3 / 3+; GCSE 2021 [iii]; Section B; Passage 3; + supplementary questions

Translate Passage 3 into English

Later Paetus is condemned to death and once again Arria puts her husband’s needs before her own.

Names

Scribonianus, Scriboniani (m): Scribonianus (the governor of Dalmatia)

Claudius, Claudii (m): Claudius (the Roman emperor)

Paetus, Paeti (m): Paetus

Arria, Arriae (f): Arria

Words

rebellio, rebellionis (f): revolt, rebellion

finio, finire, finivi, finitus: I finish, end

dubito, dubitare, dubitavi: I hesitate

doleo, dolere, dolui: I hurt

dolor, doloris (m): pain

Supplementary

Passage 3 is the last question of the GCSE language paper. It is clearly testing knowledge of many grammatical concepts that will become increasingly important as the student moves up to the UK AS and A2 examinations; in this group, I classify those as Level 4. The following questions did not form part of the examination.

paucos post annos Scribonianus, homo audax, rebellionem contra Claudium imperatorem fecit. sperabat enim se ipsum, Claudio victo, imperatorem futurum esse. rebellione tamen quinque diebus oppressa, Scribonianus statim interfectus est.

interea Paetus, qui Scriboniano auxilium dederat, a militibus Claudii Romam tractus est. ibi Claudius ei imperavit ut vitam gladio finiret. sed Paetus tam perterritus erat ut id facere nollet. tum Arria, cum intellegeret cur maritus dubitaret, gladium rapuit. ‘noli timere!’ ei dixit, corpus suum gladio simul vulnerans. ‘ecce! hoc vulnus, quod mihi dedi, non dolet.’ ita locuta Paeto gladium reddidit. nam Arria Paetum adeo amabat ut ipsa dolorem pati vellet.

Successful translation of Passage 3 in the examination itself would show recognition of the grammatical features contained within it. Therefore, the questions below are simply testing your familiarity with grammatical terms and your ability to make brief comment about them.

[1] Identify the grammatical features in bold; (1) give the grammatical term and (2) give one other relevant piece of information about each one, for example:

noli timere: (1) negative imperative; (2) 2^nd person singular [or: followed by an infinitive]

The second pieces of information given in the answers are suggestions; there are other valid statements that can be made about each form.

[i] Claudio victo

[ii] Scribonianus statim interfectus est

[iii] qui Scriboniano auxilium dederat

[iv] corpus suum gladio simul vulnerans

[v] hoc vulnus, quod mihi dedi

[vi] ita locuta

[2] What types of subjunctive are being used?

[i] Claudius ei imperavit ut vitam gladio finiret.

[ii] tam perterritus erat ut id facere nollet; adeo amabat ut ipsa dolorem pati vellet

[iii] tum Arria, cum intellegeret …

[iv] … cur maritus dubitaret

[3] Explain the use of the ablative case:

[i] rebellione tamen quinque diebus oppressa

[ii] a militibus Claudii Romam tractus est

[4]

[i] sperabat enim se ipsum … imperatorem futurum esse.

[a] What type of structure is being used here?

[b] Why is se used?

[c] What part of speech is futurum esse?

____________________

Supplementary

[1]

[i] (1) ablative absolute; (2) noun + perfect passive participle in the ablative case [or: literally: with X having been Y-ed]

[ii] (1) perfect passive; (2) 3^rd person singular [or: perfect passive participle + present tense of esse; or: from interficio, -ere (3-io)]

[iii] (1) pluperfect (active, indicative); (2) 3^rd person singular [or: perfect stem + imperfect of esse]

[iv] (1) present active participle; (2) nominative singular [or: = (who / which / while) …. ing; or: from vulnerāns, -antis]

[v] (1) relative pronoun; (2) neuter accusative singular [or: agrees with antecedent in gender and number; or: from qui, quae, quod]

[vi] (1) perfect participle of a deponent verb; (2) passive form but active meaning, i.e. having spoken [or: from loquor, -i, locutus sum]

[2]

[i] indirect command

[ii] result

[iii] cum-clause; circumstantial

[iv] indirect question

[3]

[i] time within which

[ii] agent

[4]

[a] indirect statement

[b] refers back to the subject i.e. he was hoping that he (himself) ….

[c] future active infinitive

17.10.26: Level 1; Follow-up on the previous post [2]: words and their ‘stories’; tightrope walkers, crucial questions and Reggae Music

Referring to:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/1101999429077991

Words have ‘stories’ and sometimes long journeys; knowing the story can help you to remember the word, even if it is more like a question in Who Wants to be a Millionaire?

We’ll look again at the three nouns Magister Andrews uses in his video:

(1) fūnis, -is [3/m]: rope; cord; line

Engl: funambulist < Lat: fūnambulus, -ī [2/m]: tightrope walker < fūnis (rope) + ambulāre (to walk)

(2) collum, -ī [2/n]: neck

Engl: collar < Lat: collāre, -is [3/n]: collar; neckband < collum (neck)

(3) The one, however, that involves greater ‘exploration’ is:

[i] crux, crucis [3/f]: any wooden instrument of punishment or execution, particularly (but not exclusively) a cross

agunt eum praecipitem poenae cīvium Rōmānōrum, quōs partim secūrī percussit, partim in vinculīs necāvit, partim … in crucem sustulit. (Cicero)

The punishments of Roman citizens are driving him mad [literally: headlong; ‘over the edge’], some of whom he has delivered to the executioner [literally: struck with an axe], others he has put to death in prison [literally: (while) in chains], others he has crucified … [literally: raised up onto a cross].

This quotation is from Cicero’s prosecution of Gaius Verres, the corrupt governor of Sicily. In the Roman world, crucifixion was normally reserved for non-citizens, slaves, and low classes of criminals. Among the litany of accusations against Verres was that he had crucified Roman citizens - meaning he had seriously overstepped the mark and violated their rights.

[ii] However, the word can have a transferred meaning of feeling tormented or tortured:

… sed fierī sentiō et excrucior (Catullus) | … but I feel it happening and I am tortured

[iii] It can refer to any form of ‘trouble’ or ‘misery’ often with ‘mala’ (evil / bad):

Quae tē mala crux agitat? (Plautus) | What tormentor troubles you?

[iv] And if your local political candidate comes knocking at your door …

Ī in malam crucem! | Go to the Devil! / Go and be hanged!

[v] But what about the English derivatives crux and crucial?

They are good examples of how an original meaning changes over time. Let’s go back to Plautus:

Quae tē mala crux agitat? | What tormentor troubles you?

The character is not referring to an instrument of punishment but to some form of difficulty.

In English, crux – taken directly from Latin – can convey a puzzle or difficulty, but its meaning has broadened to the idea of a critical turning point or core issue, often of a problem:

“The crux of the matter is that people just don’t vote.”

“The movie hits its dramatic crux an hour in”

The adjective crucial is from French (there was no original Latin adjective); in French its initial meaning was ‘cross-shaped,’ later adopting the English definition of ‘crucial’ meaning ‘decisive’.

However …

“Delbert Wilkins is the most crucial pirate radio DJ in Brixton.”

A fictional character created by Lenny Henry, Delbert Wilkins uses the term 'crucial' to describe his mixture of, for example, Reggae and Hip-Hop as very good, i.e. the polar opposite of what the Latin crux originally meant.

17.10.26: Level 1; Follow-up on the previous post [1]

Referring to:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/1101999429077991

Again, Magister Andrews produces a short video which, if you want, you can explore in more depth:

One key concept and two “steps up” i.e. don’t try to do everything at once. Step [1] is absolute basic Latin. Step [2] makes you aware that words in Latin change. Step [3], i.e. it is not a first step, explains briefly what particular changes are.  

Step [1]

[i] Quid est hoc? | What is this?

[ii] Haec est crux. | This is a cross.

Why does it change from hoc to haec?

[i] If you don’t know what it is, then you don’t know what gender it is. Therefore, Latin uses the neuter form to ask the question. German, Spanish and Russian, for example, do the same:

Gmn: Was ist das?

Sp: ¿Qué es eso?

Russ: Chto eto? (Что это?)

[ii] However, Magister Andrews knows what it is – and he knows the gender: crux is feminine, and the feminine form for ‘this’ is haec:

Haec est crux. | This is a cross.

But you can avoid the issue by simply saying: crux est | it’s a cross

The next noun he uses is fūnis (cord / string)

[i] Don’t know what it is?

Quid est hoc?

[ii] Now you do (it’s masculine):

Hic est fūnis. | This is a cord / string.

Fūnis est. | It’s a cord / string.

[iii] The third noun he uses is collum (neck); it is a neuter noun and so hoc is used for both the question and the answer.

Quid est hoc?

Hoc est collum meum. | This is my neck.

Collum meum est. | It’s my neck.

Therefore, three key words:

this: hic (masculine), haec (feminine), hoc (neuter)

Step [2]

If you are new to Latin then you need to be aware from an early stage that words change depending on what they are doing in a sentence. Becoming familiar with these changes takes time and patience, but Magister Andrews gives some examples.

[i] Crux in fūne est. | The cross is on the string.

in collō | on the neck

Lat: in = Engl: in or on

Step [3]

crucem in collō pōnō | I put the cross on the neck (or: on my neck; Latin does not normally use the possessive ‘my’ if it’s obvious who you’re talking about)

2 points to note:

[i] Here, crux is the direct object i.e. the action is being done to the cross: -em indicates this.

[ii] crucem: a large number of Latin nouns change the stem before an ending is added:

crux > cruc¦em

This is not as random as it first appears; there are patterns and English has many derivatives where that change is shown.

crux > cruc¦em > Engl. crucify; crucifixion; excruciating; cruciform (in the shape of a cross); crucial

19.05.27: Level 1-2 (review); Julia (a Latin Reader) [13] (5)

Omnēs hōs annōs Mārs fīliōs suōs dīligenter cōnservābat, et tandem geminīs, iam adolēscentibus omnia mōnstrāvit. Tum frātrēs, propter mātris avīque iniūriās īrātī, "Sine dubiō," inquiunt, "Amūlius hārum rērum poenās gravissimās dabit."

Pāstōrēs igitur omnēsque agricolās ad arma incitāvērunt, et cum exercitū rūsticō ad urbis portās contendērunt. Rēx quoque cōpiās contrā Rōmulum et Remum dūxit, sed rem nōn bene gessit. Superātus et necātus est. Tum adolēscentēs avum suum petīvērunt, et in rēgnum redūxērunt. Maximē gaudēbant oppidānī, quod iterum Numitōrem, iūstum rēgem, Albae Longae vidēbant.

Posteā Rōmulus urbem sibi aedificāvit, et Rōmam, dē suō nōmine, vocāvit. Rōmānī lupam, quod Rōmulum tam dīligenter cūrāverat, semper in summō honōre habēbant. Statuam lupae in Capitōliō posuērunt.

Haec statua in Capitōliō diū stābat, sed tandem fulmine dēiecta est. Alia tamen posteā in Capitōliō posita est. Hanc vōs quoque fortasse ōlim vidēbitis. Nec statuam sōlum sed lupam vīvam vidēbitis, nam Rōmānī, urbis suae orīginis memorēs, etiam nunc lupam vīvam in Capitōliō habent.

avus, -ī [2/m]: grandfather

Capitōlium, -ī [2/n]: the Capitol, the principal hill in Rome

dēiciō, -ere [3-iō]: throw down

gaudeo, -ēre [2/semi-deponent]: rejoice

statua, -ae [1/f]: statue

____________________

Throughout all these years Mars was carefully protecting his sons, and at last, when the twins were now grown up, he showed them everything. Then the brothers, angry because of the wrongs done to their mother and grandfather, said, "Without doubt Amulius will pay the very heaviest penalties for these deeds."

Therefore they roused the shepherds and all the farmers to arms, and with a country army hastened to the gates of the city. The king also led his forces against Romulus and Remus, but did not conduct the campaign well. He was defeated and killed. Then the young men sought out their grandfather, and led him back into the kingdom. The townspeople were rejoicing especially because they were seeing Numitor, the rightful king, at Alba Longa once again.

Afterwards Romulus built a city for himself, and called it Rome, from his own name. The Romans always held the she-wolf in the highest honour, because she had cared for Romulus so carefully. They placed a statue of the she-wolf on the Capitoline.

This statue stood on the Capitoline for a long time, but at last was struck down by a thunderbolt. Another, however, was afterwards placed on the Capitoline. This one perhaps you too will one day see. And you will see not only the statue but also a living she-wolf, for the Romans, mindful of the origin of their city, even now have a living she-wolf on the Capitoline.

18.05.27: Level 1; First Latin Lessons (19); 1st / 2nd declension adjectives [2]

I: Sextus bonus agricola est, et multum frūmentum habet. Magnum tēctum et parvum hortum habet. In hortō cum fīliā et fīliō nunc stat. Vesperī saepe in viīs cum amīcīs ambulat. Multī Sextum amant quod benignus est.

II: Fīlius Sextī in magnō bellō pugnat, et gladium et scūtum habet. Pūblius quoque, amīcus Sextī, in bellō pugnat.

III: Librōs multōrum poētārum laudō, sed librōs tuōs nōn laudō. Poēta bonus nōn es. Fāma tua nōn magna est.

IV: Nauta sōlus in viā stat. Amīcum exspectat. Sed amīcus in tēctō tuō manet. Nautam nōn videt.

V: Nunc amīcus ex tēctō properat. Nauta laetus est quod amīcum videt. Nauta et amīcus nōn diū in viā ambulant, quod amīcus dēfessus est.

VI: Cūr, amīce, ex tēctō tuō properās? Ex tēctō meō properō quod nautam in viā videō.

VII: Amīcus tuus sum, sed cōnsilium tuum nōn laudō. Nōn est cōnsilium bonum. Pūblius habet cōnsilium bonum.

VIII: Sextus magnōs equōs habet. Tēctum meum est magnum, casa tua est parva. Amīcōs benignōs habeō. Puerī in silvā sunt sōlī. Nauta est validus, sed fīlius nautae nōn est validus.

(1) vocabulary

• bellum, -ī [2/n]: war
• cōnsilium, -ī [2/n]: plan
• scūtum, -ī [2/n]:  shield
• gladius, -ī [2/m]: sword
• pugnō, -āre [1]: fight
• dēfessus, -a, -um: tired; weary

(2)

bonus agricola: a good farmer

poēta bonus: a good poet

librōs multōrum poētārum laudō: I praise the books of many poets

nauta laetus est: the sailor is happy

nauta est validus: the sailor is strong

nauta sōlus in viā stat: the sailor stands alone on the road

Although the nouns agricola, poēta and nauta are first declension, they are masculine in gender and so the adjective becomes masculine (see the previous unit: note [4]).

(3)

As in English, adjectives in Latin can stand alone and act as nouns:

Robin Hood robs from the rich to give to the poor.

In the text:

Multī Sextum amant | Many (people) love Sextus

(4) Give the case and number of the adjectives in bold:

[i] Nauta sōlus in viā stat.

[ii] Puerī in silvā sunt sōlī.

[iii] Fīlius Sextī in magnō bellō pugnat.

[iv] Sextus magnōs equōs habet.

[v] Nōn est cōnsilium bonum.

[vi] Cōnsilium tuum nōn laudō.

[vii] Librōs tuōs nōn laudō.

[viii] Fāma tua nōn magna est.

[ix] Cūr, amīce, ex tēctō tuō properās?

[x] (a) Multī Sextum amant quod (b) benignus est.

[xi] Multum frūmentum habet.

[xii] Librōs multōrum poētārum laudō.

[xiii] Amīcōs benignōs habeō.

____________________

[i] Nominative singular

[ii] Nominative plural

[iii] Ablative singular

[iv] Accusative plural

[v] Nominative singular

[vi] Accusative singular

[vii] Accusative plural

[viii] Nominative singular

[ix] Ablative singular

[x] (a) Nominative plural; (b) Nominative singular

[xi] Accusative singular

[xii] Genitive plural

[xiii] Accusative plural

____________________

I: Sextus is a good farmer, and has a lot of grain. He has a large house and a small garden. He is now standing in the garden with his daughter and son. In the evening he often walks in the streets with his friends. Many people love Sextus because he is kind.

II: Sextus' son is fighting in a great war, and has a sword and a shield. Publius also, Sextus' friend, is fighting in the war.

III: I praise the books of many poets, but I do not praise your books. You are not a good poet. Your reputation is not great.

IV: The sailor is standing alone on the road. He is waiting for his friend. But his friend is staying in your house. He does not see the sailor.

V: Now the friend hurries out of the house. The sailor is happy because he sees his friend. The sailor and his friend do not walk on the road for long, because the friend is tired.

VI: "Why are you hurrying out of your house, friend?" "I am hurrying out of my house because I see the sailor on the road."

VII: I am your friend, but I do not praise your plan. It is not a good plan. Publius has a good plan.

VIII: Sextus has large horses. My house is large; your cottage is small. I have kind friends. The boys are alone in the forest. The sailor is strong, but the sailor's son is not strong.

17.05.27: Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Gesta Rōmānōrum; Dē sequendā ratiōne [1]

[1]

Erat quīdam imperātor potēns sed tyrannus, quī quandam puellam, rēgis fīliam, pulchram valdē, dēspōnsāvit. Factā dēspōnsātiōne ambō adinvicem iūrāmentum fēcērunt, quod, sī quis eōrum prius morerētur, alter prae nimiō amōre sē ipsum occīderet.

Accidit semel, quod imperātor iste ad partēs longinquās sē trānstulit et diū moram ibīdem trāxit. Volēns probāre uxōrem ad eam nūntium dēstināvit, ut eī dē morte suā dīceret. Audiēns hoc uxor propter iūrāmentum, quod ante fēcerat virō suō, dē altō monte sē praecipitāvit, ut morerētur. Vērumtamen mortua nōn est, sed īnfrā breve tempus sānitātī est restitūta. Deinde iterātō sē ipsam volēbat praecipitāre, ut morerētur.

[i] Translate: Ambō adinvicem iūrāmentum fēcērunt, quod, sī quis eōrum prius morerētur, alter prae nimiō amōre sē ipsum occīderet.

[ii] How did the emperor test his wife, and what was the reason for it?

[iii] How did his wife react when she heard the news?

[iv] What was the result of her first attempt?

[v] How do we know she was determined to achieve her aim?

[vi] Explain the use of the subjunctive in: ad eam nūntium dēstināvit, ut eī dē morte suā dīceret

[2]

Pater eius hoc audiēns eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret. Illa vērō nōlēbat cōnsentīre. Ait pater: "Ex quō nōn vīs mihi cōnsentīre et oboedīre, celeriter extrā societātem meam exeās!"

[i] Translate: Pater eius hoc audiēns eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret.

[ii] What was her reaction, and how did her father respond?

[iii] Explain the use of the subjunctive in:

[a] eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret

[b] celeriter extrā societātem meam exeās

____________________

[1]

[i] They both swore an oath  to one another  that, if either of them should die first,  the other would kill himself or herself  out of excessive love .

[ii] He went to distant regions and remained there for a long time; he then sent her a messenger to tell her of his death.

[iii] She threw herself from a high mountain.

[iv] She did not die but was restored to health after a short time.

[v] She wanted to throw herself down again in order to die.

[vi] purpose clause: ut + imperfect subjunctive after dēstināvit; ad eam nūntium dēstināvit, ut eī dē morte suā dīceret | he then sent her a messenger to tell her of his death [literally: in order that / so that he might / would tell her …].

https://adckl2.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20purpose

[2]

[i] Her father, hearing this, ordered her not to obey her husband's command and oath.

[ii] She refused to agree. Her father ordered her to leave his community immediately.

[iii]

[a] indirect command after praecēpit; eī praecēpit, ut praeceptō et iūrāmentō virī nōn oboedīret | he ordered her not to obey [literally: he gave the order to her that she should not obey]

https://adckl2.blogspot.com/search/label/subjunctive%3A%20indirect%20commands

[b] jussive subjunctive expressing a command; the 2^nd person frequently translates as ‘you should’

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/01/280326-level-3-subjunctive-7.html

____________________

There was once a powerful emperor, but a tyrant, who became betrothed to a certain young woman, the very beautiful daughter of a king. After the betrothal had taken place, they both swore an oath to one another that, if either of them should die first, the other would kill himself or herself out of excessive love.

It happened one day that this emperor travelled to distant regions and stayed there for a long time. Wishing to test his wife, he sent a messenger to her to tell her of his death. When his wife heard this, because of the oath which she had previously made to her husband, she threw herself from a high mountain in order to die. Nevertheless, she did not die, but within a short time she was restored to health. Then she again wished to throw herself down in order to die.

Her father, hearing this, ordered her not to obey her husband's command and oath. However, she did not wish to agree. Her father said: "Since you do not wish to agree with me and obey me, leave my community at once!"

16.05.27: Topic / Level 4; transport [15]; on water [v] you’re gonna need a bigger boat …

From Spielberg’s Jaws (1974): in the quest to kill the great white shark that has been wreaking havoc, Brody – on board a medium-sized fishing vessel – finally spots the predator, and it is enormous. Stunned, he steps backwards into the cabin, uttering the immortal line to the captain “You’re gonna need a bigger boat”. It is a typical ‘plot point’ in conventional dramatic structure; the danger has now physically increased, with an attendant increase in the audience’s tension since this boat may not be strong enough to conquer the shark.

2000 years ago we can see a similar ‘Hollywood’ narrative technique in Pliny the Younger’s letters describing the events surrounding the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

Pliny the Younger refers to his uncle (Pliny the Elder) who, out of academic interest, prepares a boat in order to sail across to the location of the volcano:

Iubet liburnicam aptārī

• He orders a “Liburnian” to be prepared

liburna, -ae [1/f]: a Liburnian was a type of light and fast ship, two banks of oars (biremes) on each side.

That he opts for a fast boat would reflect his eagerness to satisfy his intellectual curiosity.

However, Pliny the Elder receives a letter from Rectina, an inhabitant unable to escape by land. Personally, I find this incident highly questionable from the points of view of timing and logistics. Nevertheless, this event serves as an escalating moment since Pliny the Elder decides to “upgrade” to a bigger boat, his role in the narrative “evolving” from mere academic interest to that of a rescuer i.e. the bigger the problem, the bigger the boat, and the “bigger” the man.

In one short and carefully crafted passage, Pliny significantly enhances his uncle’s involvement, portraying him as a decisive and heroic leader:

Vertit ille cōnsilium et quod studiōsō animō incohāverat obit maximō. Dēdūcit quadrirēmēs, ascendit ipse nōn Rectīnae modō sed multīs (erat enim frequēns amoenitās ōrae) lātūrus auxilium.

amoenitās, -ātis [3/f]: pleasantness; beauty

dēdūcō, -ere, dēdūxī, dēductus [3]: to draw out, launch (ships)

frequēns -ntis: crowded, densely populated

incohō, -āre [1]: to begin, start

obeō, obīre, obiī, obitus [irr.]: go towards; go to meet; undertake

[i] Vertit ille cōnsilium et

[i] He changes his plan, and

• In dramatic theory, this is – as in ‘Jaws’ – the moment the protagonist realises his initial assumptions are inadequate for the magnitude of the task.

[ii] quod studiōsō animō incohāverat obit maximō.

[ii] Literally: What he had begun with a studious mind, he executes with the greatest.

that which he had begun with an attitude of study he takes on with a spirit of courage.

• The enormity of the task demands far more than the purely academic, but the greatest Roman characteristic.
• That shift in priorities is conveyed in a shift of tense from the pluperfect incohāverat to the historical present obit.
• The verb obeō, obīre [irr.] can have the meaning of go to meet or go to face, and neatly conveys the idea of a hero willingly about to encounter an ‘enemy’; to face danger or death is often expressed as perīculum obīre (to go to meet danger) or mortem obīre (to go to meet death).

[A] studiōsō animō [B] incohāverat ¦ [B] obit [A] (animō) maximō.

• In this specific line, Pliny uses ellipsis, the omission of a second animō, to create a deliberate contrast between an ‘academic’ state of mind and a courageous one: studiōsō ¦ animō ¦ … maximō.
• Note also the repetition of the grammatical ending -ō which binds the contrasting ideas.
• We also have here an example of chiasmus:  this is a rhetorical device where words or grammatical structures are repeated in reverse order to create an A-B-B-A pattern. Here it emphasises the dramatic and decisive change.

[iii] Dēdūcit quadrirēmēs,

[iii] He draws out quadriremes;

• Designed for heavy transport and troop movement, these massive four-banked warships were part of the imperial fleet based at Misenum, and Pliny the Elder was the fleet commander. By using the plural (dēdūcit quadrirēmēs), Pliny the Younger reveals that his uncle launched a full-scale naval evacuation.

[iv] ascendit ipse,

[iv] he himself boards,

• The emphatic pronoun ipse presents him not as a rear-guard commander, but one who will lead the evacuation irrespective of the consequences that he may personally face.
• Note also, between [iii] and [iv] the omission of the conjunction et:

Dēdūcit quadrirēmēs, ascendit ipse

• This is known as asyndeton and conveys here actions that are taking place rapidly and almost simultaneously.
• The use of the historical present (dēdūcit / ascendit) gives a greater sense of immediacy.

[v] nōn Rectīnae modō sed multīs (erat enim frequēns amoenitās ōrae) lātūrus auxilium.

[v] intending to bring assistance not only to Rectina, but to many (for the pleasantness of that shore was crowded).

• He is not just saving a single ‘damsel in distress’; he is saving the masses (multīs). The future active participle lātūrus (intending to / about to bring) frames him as a man with an active, noble destiny.

Ultimately there may be a sad irony in the decision to employ larger but slower ships. While the veracity of at least some of Pliny’s narrative is debatable, there were about 300 people on the shore at Herculaneum waiting for boats to rescue them. They took shelter in the boatsheds, but tragically, the pyroclastic flow from Vesuvius reached them before any boats did. That irony is compounded by the fact that, however much of a ‘saviour’ Pliny the Elder wanted to be, he never managed to save himself.

In one short passage we have a rapid sequence of escalating events conveyed succinctly and, in places, poetically. It captures the metamorphosis of a man from intellectual Roman official to a selfless and decisive hero, ready to face the deadliest of enemies as a saviour of the people. It is the stuff of which gripping narratives are made, and was designed to appeal directly to the man who had asked Pliny the Younger to write about it: the eminent historian, Tacitus.

15.05.27: Level 3 / 3+; GCSE 2021 [ii]; Section B; Passage 2

Passage 2

When her son dies, Arria puts aside her own grief in order to help her husband, Paetus.

Arria, Arriae (f): Arria
Paetus, Paeti (m): Paetus

Words

emineo, eminere, eminui: I stand out
aegroto, aegrotare, aegrotavi: I am ill
funus, funeris (n): funeral
simulo, simulare, simulavi: I pretend
salus, salutis (f): health
dolor, doloris (m): grief, sorrow

(12) quamquam ... eminebant (lines 1–2)

(a) nonnullae feminae propter virtutem eminebant: why did some women stand out? [1]

(b) quamquam viri summum imperium Romae tenebant: why was it surprising that these women stood out? [2]

(13) eodem tempore ... aegrotabat (lines 3–4): what does this tell us about the son of Paetus and Arria? [3]

(14) cum ... celare constituit: what information did Arria decide to hide from her husband? [2]

(15) nam timebat ... deleret: what was Arria afraid might happen? [2]

(16) mater ... audiret:

(a) what does this tell us about Arria’s arrangements for her son’s funeral? [1]

(b) what happened as a result? [2]

(17) diu Arria ... daret: what did Arria do to give hope to Paetus? [2]

(18) itaque ... consumpsit: what did Arria say when her husband asked about the health of their son? [2]

(19) sola ... lacrimabat (lines 9–10): write down and translate a Latin phrase which shows how Arria really felt. [2]

Latin phrase: __________
English translation: __________

(20) ita Arria ... servandam (line 10): why did Arria show such great courage? [1]

____________________

Mark Scheme; 2021: Section B; Questions [12] – [20]

Question 12(a): Because of their courage (1)

• propter: accept “on account of”
• virtutem: accept “virtue” / “bravery”
• propter virtutem: accept “They were courageous/brave/virtuous”

Question 12(b): Men held (1) the greatest power (1)

• ignore “Romae”
• summum: accept “highest”; do not accept “high”
• imperium: accept “command”; do not accept “empire” / “position” / “status” / “order”
• however: “Men were ruling (x) the greatest empire (consequential)” = 1/2
• tenebant: accept “had”

Question 13: He was more handsome and loyal (1) than all others (1) He was ill (1)

• pulchrior: accept “more beautiful”
• fidelior: accept “more faithful” / “more trustworthy”
• omnibus aliis: accept “than everyone else”

Question 14: Their son seemed (1) to be about to die (1)

• videretur: accept “appeared”; do not accept “she saw”
• moriturus: insist on the future tense; accept “about to perish”

Question 15: That a message of that kind (1) would destroy Paetus (1)

• nuntius: accept “news” / “information” / “announcement”; do not accept “messenger”
• illius: accept “this”
• modi: accept “type” / “sort”; do not accept “manner” / “way”
• deleret: accept “kill”

Question 16(a): She prepared it carefully (1)

• paravit: accept “prepared for”
• diligenter: accept “diligently”; accept “She was careful”

Question 16(b): Paetus heard nothing (1) about his son’s death (1)

• nihil … audiret: accept “did not hear anything”
• de: accept “of” / “concerning”
• filii: accept “her/their/the son”

Question 17: She pretended that their son (1) was alive (1)

• vivere: accept “was living”

Question 18: He slept well (1) He ate food willingly (1)

• bene: accept “very well”
• libenter: accept “gladly”; accept direct speech

Question 19: se dolori dabat (1): she gave herself to grief (1) OR vehementer lacrimabat (1): she cried loudly (1)

• vehementer: accept “violently”; do not accept “greatly”

Question 20: To save (the life of) Paetus (1)

• servandam: accept “protect”
• there must be a sense of purpose
• look out for REP (repeated / consequential error) from Q7

14.05.27: Level 1-2 (review); Julia (a Latin Reader) [13] (4)

Geminī intereā prope flūminis rīpam ā servīs relictī erant. Mārs autem fīliōrum nōn immemor erat; lupam ad geminōs mīsit. Lupa, ubi puerōs vīdit, bonam benignamque sē praebuit; nōn enim puerōs necāvit, sed in tūtum locum portāvit; deinde lac geminīs, sīcut parvulōs suīs dabat.

Posteā, ubi maiōrēs erant geminī, nec iam cūram dēsīderābant, pāstōrēs petīvērunt, et inter pāstōrēs diū vītam rūsticam agēbant. Ā pāstōribus Rōmulus Remusque vocātī sunt; nihil autem dē orīgine suā sciēbant.

agō, -ere [3]: lead

lac, lactis [3/n]: milk

lupa, -ae [1/f]: she-wolf

māior, -ius: greater

orīgō, -inis [3/f]: origin

pastor, -ōris [3/m]: shepherd

posteā: afterwards

sīcut: just as

____________________

Meanwhile the twins had been left by the slaves near the bank of the river. Mars, however, was not forgetful of his sons; he sent a she-wolf to the twins. The she-wolf, when she saw the boys, showed herself good and kindly disposed; for she did not kill the boys, but carried them to a safe place; then she gave milk to the twins, just as to her own little ones.

Afterwards, when the twins were older, and no longer required care, they sought out shepherds, and among the shepherds for a long time were leading a country life. By the shepherds they were called Romulus and Remus; they knew, however, nothing about their origin.

13.05.27: Level 1; First Latin Lessons (18); 1st / 2nd declension adjectives [1]

[1] Review of earlier units

(1) An adjective can be [i] attributive or [ii] predicative

[i] attributive: a little girl; in English the attributive adjective usually comes immediately before the noun. In Latin the attributive adjective may come before or after the noun:

• parva puella | the / a little girl
• īnsula magna | the / a large island
• Britannia īnsula magna et pulchra est. | Britain is a large and beautiful island.

[ii] predicative: the cottage is beautiful; the adjective follows the verb ‘to be’:

• casa est pulchra | the cottage is beautiful
• casa est pulchra sed parva | the cottage is beautiful but small

Latin word order is flexible and so, very often, the verb is at the end of the sentence:

• casa nōn magna est | the cottage is not big

(2) adjectives agree; their endings will show:

[i] the gender, number (singular / plural) and case of the attributive adjective:

nominative

• parva puella epistulam habet | the little girl has a letter
• Patria tua nōn est America | your homeland is not America

accusative

• parvam puellam amō | I love the little girl
• patriam meam amō | I love my homeland

[ii] the gender and number after the verb ‘to be’; the case will be nominative

• Hibernia quoque est magna et pulchra | Ireland is also large and beautiful

[2] 1^st / 2^nd declension adjectives

There are two types of adjectives in Latin. You have seen the first type throughout all the units so far. At this stage, we will focus only on this type.

[i] 1^st / 2^nd  declension adjectives have the nominative singular endings -us, -a, -um and decline with the same endings as 1^st and 2^nd declension nouns.

The term ‘2-1-2’ is also used to describe them since:

the masculine adjective has the same endings as a 2^nd declension masculine noun: 2

the feminine adjective has the same endings as a 1^st declension feminine noun: 1

the neuter adjective has the same endings as a 2^nd declension neuter noun: 2

• Masculine: bonus; same ending as a 2^nd declension masculine noun [‘2’]
• Feminine: bona; same ending as a 1^st declension feminine noun [‘1’]
• Neuter: bonum; same ending as a 2^nd declension neuter noun [‘2’]

The adjectives are normally listed in vocabularies as: bonus, -a, -um

[ii] Only the masculine vocative singular is listed with a separate ending; in the plural and in all other adjective declensions the vocative singular is the same as the nominative singular, the vocative plural the same as the nominative plural.

[3] 1^st / 2^nd declension adjectives are not copying the endings of 1^st / 2^nd declension nouns. They just happen to have the same endings. There are other noun declensions in Latin, but the 1^st / 2^nd declension adjectives will retain their own endings, for example:

bonus vir: a good man

rēx [masculine] irātus: an angry king

urbs [feminine] magna: a large city

flūmen [neuter] altum: a deep river

[4] 1^st declension nouns are mainly feminine and, therefore, the adjective agrees in gender:

puella [feminine] pulchra: a beautiful girl

casa [feminine] parva: a small cottage

However, some are masculine and refer to occupations / activities traditionally associated with males, for example:

agricola, -ae [1/m]: farmer

nauta, -ae [1/m]: sailor

pīrāta, -ae [1/m]: pirate

poēta, -ae [1/m]: poet

When an adjective describes these nouns, the masculine form is used:

poēta [masculine] clārus: a famous poet

pīrāta [masculine] malus: an evil pirate

LINKS

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/adjectives%3A%201st%20%2F%202nd%20declension