31.10.25: Level 2; Vincent (Latin Reader); XXXIII; Preparations for a Second Invasion

While wintering in Gaul, Caesar makes arrangements for a second invasion. Some ships are repaired and a new kind of ship is built, and after dealing with some trouble among the Treviri, Caesar sets sail again in 54 B.C.

Cōpiae Rōmānae in Galliā in hībernīs manēbant. Hieme Caesar in Ītaliam discessit, sed lēgātī, quī cum legiōnibus manēbant, nāvēs novās aedificābant et reliquās reparābant. Rōmānī nāvēs humiliōrēs, quod fluctūs nōn magnī ibi sunt, et lātiōrēs aedificāvērunt, atque rēs omnēs ad bellum parāvērunt. Caesar, ubi Rōmā in Galliam vēnit, mīlitēs propter studium laudāvit et iter fēcit contrā Pīrustās*, quī magnam partem Galliae vastāverant: sed Pīrustae nūntiōs ad Caesarem dē pāce mīsērunt atque obsidēs, quōs imperāverat, statim dedērunt.

*Pirustae, -ārum [1/m/pl]: ancient tribe from Illyria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_tribes_in_Illyria

Answers are at the end of the post

[A] Comprehension

[i] Where did the Roman troops spend the winter? (1)

[ii] Where did Caesar go at this time? (1)

[iii] [a] What types of ships were being built (2), and [b] why? (1)

[iv] How did Caesar react when he returned? (2)

[v] Why did Caesar march against the Pirustae? (2)

[vi] Translate: sed Pīrustae nūntiōs ad Caesarem dē pāce mīsērunt atque obsidēs, quōs imperāverat, statim dedērunt (5)

[B] Grammar review

[1] Give the precise meanings of:

[i] aedificābant; [ii] aedificāvērunt; [iii] vastāverant (3)

[2] [i] What case is hieme, and [ii] why is that case being used? (2)

[3] Caesar, ubi Rōmā in Galliam vēnit

[i] What case is Rōmā, and [ii] why is that case being used? (2)

[4] nouns ending in -us could be 2^nd or 3^rd or 4^th declension: [i] what declension is fluctūs, and [ii] how do you know?

[5] What is the nominative singular of the following 3^rd declension nouns from the text? (6)

[i] legiōnibus; [ii] nāvēs; [iii] mīlitēs; [iv] partem; [v] pāce; [vi] obsidēs

[6] What is the first person singular present tense of the following verbs from the text? (4)

[i] discessit ; [ii] fēcit; [iii] mīsērunt; [iv]  dedērunt

[7] What type of adjectives are humiliōrēs and lātiōrēs? (1)

[C] Derivatives: explain the Latin origins of the following English derivatives; those derivatives may not have come directly from the words in the text i.e. they may be from related adjectives or nouns.

[i] fluctuate

[ii] hibernation

[iii] humility

[iv] itinerary

[v] latitude

[vi] pacify

____________________

[A] Comprehension

[i] Gaul

[ii] Rome

[iii] [a] lower; wider [b] the waves were not large

[iv] praised the soldiers ¦ on account of their enthusiasm / eagerness

[v] They had laid waste to ¦ a large part of ¦ Gaul.

[vi] (1) but the Pirustae sent messengers (2) to Caesar (3) concerning peace [ = to make peace / to agree peace terms] and (4) they immediately gave / delivered the hostages (5) whom he had demanded

[B] Grammar review

[1] [i] they were building (or, in this context, they began building; the imperfect tense can convey the beginning of an action); [ii] they built; perfect tense [iii] they had laid waste; pluperfect tense

[2] [i]ablative; [ii] the ablative of time when i.e. used to indicate a precise moment or, more commonly, a period of time when an action took place i.e. hieme: in winter

[3] [i] ablative; [ii] Rōmā: from Rome i.e. no preposition is used to express from a named city

[4] [i] 4^th declension; [ii] fluctus, -ūs [4/m]; the nominative plural is -ūs

[5] [i] legiō; [ii] nāvis; [iii] mīles; [iv] pars; [v] pāx; [vi] obses

[6] [i] discēdō; [ii] faciō; [iii] mittō; [iv] dō

[7] comparative adjectives

[C] Derivatives

[i] fluctus, -ūs [4/m]: wave

[ii] hībernus, -a, -um: (adj.) winter

[iii] humilis, -e: low; lowly; humble

[iv] iter, itineris [3/n]: journey

[v]lātus, -a, -um: broad; wide

[vi]pāx, pācis [3/f]: peace

30.10.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [13][iii] 3rd declension nouns

The text features a number of third declension nouns.

Rosae et multī aliī flōrēs sunt in hortō medicī. │ Roses and many other flowers are in the doctor’s garden.

Mox hiems erit, sed Claudius hiemem nōn laudat. │ It will soon be Winter, but Claudius doesn’t praise Winter.

Hieme nūllī flōrēs sunt in hortīs.  │ There are no flowers in the gardens in Winter.

Aestāte multōs flōrēs ibi vidēmus. │ In Summer we see many flowers there.

Pater Cassī Claudiō … equōs suōs mōnstrat. │ Cassius’ father shows his horses to Claudius.

Claudius est amīcus … patris Cassī │ Claudius is a friend of Cassius’ father [= literally: … of the father of Cassius]

Nunc est nox et quiēs est in terrā. │ Now it is night and there is calm on the land.

Equī in stabulō stant et quiētem capiunt. │ The horses are standing in the table and taking a rest.

Look again at the vocabulary list in the first post and how those words are listed:

aestās, aestātis [3/f]: summer

flōs, flōris [3/m]: flower

hiems, hiemis [3/f]: winter

nox, noctis [3/f]: night

pater, patris [3/m]: father

quiēs, quiētis [3/f]: sleep; rest

These are third declension nouns,  a very important topic, and links to all previous posts are here:

[i] 3^rd declension nouns

https://mega.nz/file/KUVi2IjQ#4ysbn3CPFqLTTxvquDvhOKZ5fuN4dPg3QtozQ4xRjig

[ii] 3^rd declension nouns: review

https://mega.nz/file/zd03CR5K#o3d0lqdRkvvSvfbJridQA-O7qWArCkBXiH8e2HwX-U0

The information in those files appears lengthy. However, they contain not only the key information but also examples in context, exercises, review, progress checks and considerable repetition because not all concepts in a language will immediately “sink in”.

There are, however, some key points to note:

[i] Unlike the other noun declensions which have very specific nominative case forms e.g. puella [1^st declension; almost all are feminine], servus [2^nd declension; almost all are masculine], magister, puer, vir, [2^nd declension masculine] and templum [2^nd declension neuter], the nominative case of 3^rd declension nouns can [a] have a variety of endings and [b] can be any gender which, unless it refers to a human being, can often not be predicted, for example:

rēx: king (masculine)

flōs: flower (masculine)

uxor: wife (feminine)

quiēs: rest (feminine)

mare: sea (neuter)

cor: heart (neuter)

Image #1: [ii] Unlike the 1^st and 2^nd declension nouns, many 3^rd declension nouns change the stem i.e. the form to which all the other case endings are added, for example:

Nominative singular: mīles (soldier)

Genitive singular: mīlit¦is

And it is from that genitive singular that the rest of the declension is formed, for example:

Nom: mīles

Gen: mīlit¦is i.e. the stem is mīlit-, and it is that stem which dictates the rest of the declension:

Dat: mīlit¦ī

Acc. mīlit¦em

Abl. mīlit¦e

The same applies to the plural e.g. Nom. pl: mīlit¦ēs

The first image gives examples of stem changes of 3rd declension nouns; some 3rd declension nouns do not change their stem e.g. nāvis (as shown), but a large number of them do, and so, when learning 3rd declension nouns, it is important to note not only the nominative singular, but also the genitive singular.

[ii] Image #2 shows the declension of the 3^rd declension nouns mīles (soldier) and iter (journey); most dictionaries, vocabulary lists and grammar books will indicate this:

mīles (nominative singular), mīlitis (genitive singular which indicates the stem) [3(rd declension) / m(asculine)]

aestās, aestātis [3/f]: summer

iter, itineris [3/n]: journey

[iii] The importance of knowing the genitive is crucial. Look at the following examples:

servus, servī [2^nd declension]: slave; genitive singular -ī

tempus, temporis [3^rd declension]: time; genitive singular -is

i.e. there are also 3^rd declension nouns which end in -us

Similarly:

magister, magistrī [2^nd declension]: teacher; genitive singular -ī

pater, patris [3^rd declension]: father; genitive singular -is

i.e. there are also 3^rd declension nouns which end in -er

Therefore, knowing only the nominative will not tell you to which declension these nouns belong. However, the genitive singular is different for all the Latin declensions which is why it is standard practice in dictionaries and other reference works to give the nominative and genitive singular of all Latin nouns so that the declension of the noun is always clear. And that doesn’t simply apply to the 3rd declension. Latin nouns will be commonly listed in the following way:

puella, puellae (or simply: -ae) [1/f]

agricola, -ae [1/m]; yes, most nouns ending in -a are feminine, but some are not and so a dictionary will indicate that

hortus, -ī [2/m]: garden

pīnus, -ī [2/f]; as above: most nouns ending in -us are masculine, but some are not and so, again, gender is always noted

puer, -ī [2/m]: boy, but …

soror, sorōris [3/f]: sister

You will see as you go on that there are two other Latin declensions and they too will indicate the genitive singular to identify the declension because they are all different, for example:

hortus, -ī [2/m]: garden

pectus, pectoris [3/n]: chest; breast

portus, portūs [4/m]: harbour; port 

This is not something that you need to know inside-out at this stage, but simply to be aware of.

Image #3 shows an example of this with two nouns:

servus, -ī [2/m]: slave and genus, generis [3/n]: type i.e. they belong to two different declensions and their endings are completely different from each other.

30.10.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [13][ii] Future tense

Tum Claudius maestus erit quod nūllōs flōrēs suōs vidēbit, sed nōn lacrimābit. │ Then Claudius will be gloomy because he will see none of his own flowers, but he will not cry.

The future tense is formed in two ways depending on the conjugation of the verb. In this text you see (1) the future tense of the 1^st and 2^nd conjugations, and (2) the verb esse.

All posts on the future tense are here:

https://mega.nz/file/vAtW0A6b#UBOXWkiaJbw5MY8XfHdMTZpr5K3GyKjfu8gUdDm0WSU

30.10.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [13][i]

Carolus et Maria XIII

Grātus est hortus Iūliae. Ibi sunt rosae et līlia alba. Hortus est post casam. In oppidō nōn sunt multī hortī. Hortus post ūnum tēctum est. Hortus medicī est. Fīliae medicī in hōc hortō nōn labōrant. Rosae et multī aliī flōrēs sunt in hortō medicī. Hieme nūllī flōrēs sunt in hortīs. Aestāte multōs flōrēs ibi vidēmus.

Claudius est vir quī hortum medicī cūrat. Multās hōrās ibi labōrat. Mox hiems erit, sed Claudius hiemem nōn laudat. Tum Claudius maestus erit quod nūllōs flōrēs suōs vidēbit, sed nōn lacrimābit. Claudius nōn est agricola nunc. Diū in silvā habitābat et erat agricola. Aeger erat et in silvā manēre nōn cupiēbat. Nunc in oppidō habitat et labōrat. Saepe Claudius silvam et agrōs vidēre cupit. Claudius est amīcus agricolae, patris Cassī, et saepe ad tēctum agricolae it. Tum multa dē oppidō et dē hortō nārrat. Tum colloquium est longum. Cassius colloquium grātum audit et est laetus.

Agricola multum frūmentum in agrō habet quod duōs equōs habet. Pater Cassī Claudiō frūmentum et equōs suōs mōnstrat. Hieme in agrō nūllum frūmentum est. Aestāte ibi est multum frūmentum. Hī equī frūmentum cupiunt. Cassius equīs frūmentum dat, sed ūnus ex equīs nōn stat cum Cassius frūmentum dat. Equus malus est. Cassium audit et timet. Nūllum perīculum est, sed equus hoc nōn intellegit. Cassius hunc malum equum timet.

Nunc est nox et quiēs est in terrā. Virī et equī nōn labōrant. Equī in stabulō stant et quiētem capiunt. Agricola et Claudius cēnam edunt. Post cēnam fābulās nārrant. Ubi quiētem cupit, Claudius domō agricolae ad domum medicī it. Sōlus est et multa audit, sed nōn timet.

Vocabulary

[1]

albus, -a, -um: white

alius, alia, aliud: another, other

nūllus, -a, -um: no, none

quī, quae, quod: which

[2]

audiō, -īre [4]: hear; listen to

capiō, -ere [3-iō]: take

timeō, -ēre [2]: fear; be afraid

edō, ēsse: eat

[3]

duo: two

tum: then

05.08.25: Level 1; follow-up on a previous post; the Mouse that made Latin cool

Referring to:

https://www.facebook.com/.../latin.../posts/746045381340066/

This was posted by Bert McCollum, one of our long-term members, and refers to a Latin course entitled 'Minimus'

Minimus, the mouse that made Latin cool!

https://www.minimuslatin.co.uk/

The course was written for kids, and it is tremendous! If you're looking for something that children can use, I haven't found anything better. It is packed with resources and, in particular, if you go to the last subheading (more ...) there are links to a whole range of progress checks. PS: although it's for children, you can pretend to be one  Thanks, Bert, for mentioning it. I did write about it ages ago but it's always worth referring again to the work of an obviously dedicated and creative teacher; she did a great job. 

04.08.25: Level 3 (review); 3rd declension nouns; patterns and trapdoors

For reference: all posts on the 3^rd declension of nouns have now been compiled into two files: [i] all the posts that first dealt with it, and [ii] all the posts (including this one) which reviewed it and / or looked at certain aspects in a little more detail. There are a few additional posts in [ii] that are scheduled for FB but are not yet published here. The links to where they only appear at the moment are given in the files.

And you would be forgiven if, having looked at those two files, you thought that I had added two gospels: the Gospel according to the Third Declension and the Book of i-stems. Once a teacher, always a teacher (I guess): while the internet has revolutionised our world, I do feel that we can be a bit “brainwashed” into thinking that everything is quick and easy, and I also feel that it makes us rather more impatient: I, for one, will jump up and down, if I can’t book a flight on Expedia in thirty seconds, despite the fact there’s a travel agent less than a minute’s walk from my apartment: you’re not expecting me to walk there, are you?

Personally, I don’t think learning a language is quick, nor is it always easy: it needs time, patience, determination, repetition, review, reading, examples, practice, self-testing … and asking. Don’t get me wrong: I use the internet all the time to research / check what I post. But there are some aspects of Latin which, unless you wrote piano concertos at the age of four, can be overwhelming if – internet or no internet – all of it is presented at the same time. If you doubt that, get a hold of Moreland and Fleischer’s Latin: an intensive Course if you’re into being taught Latin by the Marines.

Therefore, some topics were divided into many “bite-size” posts, dealing with them step-by-step. That’s why, if you take a bit of time to look through those two files, you’ll see that there is repetition, review, examples, reading in context, and practice. They’ve now all been put together with links to the original posts.

Yes, 3^rd declension nouns have been done to death in the group because [i] the majority of Latin nouns belong to that declension and [ii] unlike other noun declensions, a very large number of them change the stem, for example:

Nominative singular: mīles (soldier)

Genitive singular: mīlit¦is

And it is from that genitive singular that the rest of the declension is formed, for example:

Nom: mīles

Gen: mīlit¦is i.e. the stem is mīlit-, and it is that stem which dictates the rest of the declension:

Dat: mīlit¦ī

Acc. mīlit¦em

Abl. mīlit¦e

The same applies to the plural e.g. Nom. pl: mīlit¦ēs

Therefore, not unlike the way a learner of French has to know whether a word is le or la, or a German learner memorises nouns with der, die or das, so too is it advisable not simply to focus on the nominative of a 3^rd declension noun, but also its genitive singular: mīles, mīlitis [3/m]: soldier

Images: When you first begin to learn Latin, these stem changes seem haphazard. However, when I started, I gradually realised through reading: “Hang on, this isn’t as random as it first appears.” Therefore, the image gives common “patterns” of common 3^rd declension words where the endings change. Not all 3^rd declension nouns belong to patterns and not all will do what is listed there, but there are more than enough to get a “feel” of how many of these nouns either mostly or exclusively work.

But something to note, and not only pertaining to this topic.

There is a Russian writer, Nikolai Gogol, a contemporary of Dickens; I think Gogol’s work is tremendous and he was one of my majors when I was at university. Of Gogol’s work, one critic (rephrasing the original written by Nabokov) wrote: Imagine a trap-door that opens under your feet with absurd suddenness, you can fall through it” i.e. you’re moving through the text with some specific interpretation and then Gogol throws in a curve ball.

All languages – with the possible sole exception of the artificially created Esperanto – have “trapdoors”.

The plural of fox is foxes, the plural of box is boxes, the plural of tax is taxes, and the plural of ox is oxen (from OE: oxa; pl. oxan)

Every female in German is feminine, right?: die Frau (woman; wife), die Schwester (sister), die Tochter (daughter), unless you happen to be a girl, in which case you’re neuter: das Mädchen.

The Russian noun ending -a is feminine and, therefore, can refer to females, right?: devushka (girl), zhena (wife), babushka (grandmother), unless you’re a proud grandfather (dedushka) or a man (muzhchina); to be fair, Russian grammar does state that those two are masculine.

The point is that, whatever set of “rules” or “patterns” you read, there will be exceptions. Dictionaries, grammar books and long-winded online gurus will give accounts of why these endings and / or exceptions occur, or the Indo-European origins, or whether they are feminine abstract noun forming suffixes or whether the same ending is found in Hittite (oh yes, that’s mentioned in one entry). Wiktionary will tell you all of that, and it may well sound impressive at dinner parties, but it’s best to become familiar with the common changes in stems.

Twenty-one examples from the posts; it isn’t a world-class piece of writing but it does show the extent to which derivatives of 3^rd declension nouns exist in English and that the stem cahnges are still very often evident …

You may feel a little (1) vulnerable when faced with the (2) magnitude of Latin stem changes, perhaps remembering the (3) corporal punishment you endured on the (4) occasion when your brain wasn’t (5) operating last lesson on a Friday. And your highly (6) vocal teacher said that you wouldn’t be (7) nominated for School prefect owing to your (8) criminal and (9) irrational lack of (10) passion for the language and (11) artificial attempts to display (12) fortitude when studying the subjunctive. And a (13) multitude of pupils (14) temporarily mocked you, but never mind: off you went to bed and during your (15) nocturnal (16) visions you dreamt of a (17) judicial enquiry and the (18) pulchritudinous moment when that (19) Lucifer of a Latin teacher was hauled away by (20) centurions to the distant (21) regions of Gaul.

Here are a random set of 3^rd declension nouns. There are no “trapdoors”; what is [i] the genitive singular and [ii] the gender of each noun?

aurifex, __________ [3/_____]: goldsmith

centuriō, __________ [3/_____]: commander of a 100 men

crīmen, __________ [3/_____]: verdict; crime

dux, __________ [3/_____]: leader; commander

imperātrīx, __________ [3/_____]: empress

lūx, __________ [3/_____]: light

magnitūdō, __________ [3/_____]: vastness; greatness; extent

mercātor, __________ [3/_____]: merchant

nūmen, __________ [3/_____]: divine power

pānifex, __________ [3/_____]: bread-maker

passiō, __________ [3/_____]: suffering; enduring

mūnus, __________ [3/_____]: gift; is it -oris or -eris? You may get some form of remuneration if you get it right!

pectus, __________ [3/_____]: breast; is it -oris or -eris? Or perhaps you’ll give up, go to the gym and work on those pectoral muscles.

servitūs __________ (-ūs, not -us) [3/_____]: slavery

piscātor, __________ [3/_____]: fisherman

piscātrix, __________ [3/_____]: fisherwoman

potestās,  __________ [3/_____]: power

tempestās, __________ [3/_____]: storm

testūdō, __________ [3/_____]: tortoise; turtle

vīsiō, __________ [3/_____]: sight

29.10.25: Level 3 (review); personal pronouns [2]; 1st / 2nd person pronouns [ii] practice

The answers are at the end of the post.

Complete the Latin quotations with the appropriate pronouns listed below:

[1]

[i] Which woman seems by far the wisest to you (sg.)? │ Quae __________ mulier vidētur multō sapientissima? (Plautus)

[ii] That’s no name of mine [ = to me] │ Nōn id est nōmen __________ (Plautus)

[iii] All that's permitted (to) us in Athens │ Licet haec Athēnīs __________ (Plautus)

[iv] Curses (to) you (all)! │ Vae __________! (Plautus)

[v] These things, my dear, make me tired of life │ Haec rēs vītae __________, soror, saturant (Plautus)

[vi] Bring (him) here with you (sg.)│ __________ addūce (Plautus)

[vii] It doesn’t seem to me that men are living here with me, but swine │ Nōn hominēs habitāre __________ mī [ = mihi] hīc videntur, sed suēs (Plautus)

[viii] (yet) we live, and that city (Rome) is standing │ __________ vīvimus, et stat urbs ista (Cicero)

[ix] And I wanted or rather longed that he should be with me [note: Cicero tends to us ‘us’ rather than ‘me’; therefore, here, with us]. │ Ego volēbam autem vel cupiēbam potius esse eum __________.

mē; mēcum; mihi; nōbīs; nōbīscum; nōs; tēcum; tibi; vōbīs

[2]

Some of these examples show the use of the genitive of the pronouns (marked in bold):

[i] If (1) I don't lay some plan to prevent it, some sly one like (similar to) (2) myself   [La: similis + genitive] │ Nisi quid (1) __________ (2) __________ simile aliquid contrā cōnsilium parō (Plautus)

[ii] None of us doubted │ Dubitābat __________ nēmō (Cicero)

[iii] (1) You pity [ = it causes you (accusative) pity] others, but have no pity for (2) yourself [genitive], or shame either. │ Miseret (1) __________ aliōrum, (2) __________ nec miseret nec pudet (Plautus)

Addressing more than one person:

[iv] … when he sees (1) you (accusative) and men like (similar to) (2) you (pl.) [La: similis + genitive] │ … cum vōs, cum vestrī similēs … vīderit (Cicero)

ego; meī; nostrum; tē; tuī; vestrī; vōs

[1]

[i] Quae tibi mulier vidētur multō sapientissima?

[ii] Nōn id est nōmen mihi

[iii] Licet haec Athēnīs nōbīs

[iv] Vae vōbīs!

[v] Haec rēs vītae mē, soror, saturant

[vi] Tēcum addūce

[vii] Nōn hominēs habitāre mēcum mī hīc videntur, sed suēs

[viii] Nōs vīvimus, et stat urbs ista

[ix] Ego volēbam autem vel cupiēbam potius esse eum nōbīscum.

[2]

[i] Nisi quid (1) ego (2) meī simile aliquid contrā cōnsilium parō

[ii] Dubitābat nostrum nēmō

[iii] Miseret (1) tē aliōrum, (2) tuī nec miseret nec pudet

[iv] … cum (1) vōs, cum (2) vestrī similēs … vīderit

29.10.25: Level 3 (review); personal pronouns [1]; 1st / 2nd person pronouns [i]

LINKS

(1) 25.02.24: subject pronouns

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/subject-pronouns-it-has-already-been.html

(2) 22.05.25: Level 1; readings [12] - [15]: review (1a); personal pronouns (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/02/220525-level-1-readings-12-15-review-1a.html

Latin seems to have a staggering array of pronouns. However, the way in which they translate is generally no different from English i.e. I, me, him, them etc. The focus is more on how the different pronouns are used in different contexts.

We can divide the pronouns into two groups i.e. [1] the first / second person pronouns (e.g. I, me, we, us, you etc.) and [2] the 3^rd person pronouns e.g. he, him, them etc. It is the 3^rd person pronouns that take some time to master.

We will deal here with the 1^st/ 2^nd person pronouns.

1^st / 2^nd person pronouns

[1] The nominative of the subject pronouns is generally not used since the verb ending makes it clear who is performing the action: ambulō │ I am walking. However, they are used when there is a need to emphasise and / or make a contrast, or to clarify, or when the pronoun stands alone. In written English such a use may be indicated by italics e.g. You may think that but I have a different opinion.

Ego in Britanniā habitō, sed tū in Ītalia habitās. │ I live in Britain, but you live in Italy.

Quid agis? Bene, grātiās agō. Et tū? │ How are you? I’m fine, thanks. And you?

Vōs in agrō laborātis, sed nōs in templō ōrāmus. │ You (all) work in the field, but we pray in the temple.

[2] tū; vōs: be careful not to be influenced by other languages where there is more than one word for ‘you’. In French, for example, the second person pronouns tu and vous - derived from the Latin tū and vōs - distinguish not only between talking to one person or more than person, but the relationship between the person speaking and the person addressed, Fr. tu only used informally with one person who is, for example, a friend, a family member or somebody markedly younger whereas Fr. vous is used for all groups of people and formally to one person who is not known e.g. a shop assistant, or a stranger in the street. Similar distinctions occur in Spanish, German and Russian.

The only distinction made in Classical Latin is whether one person is being addressed (tū) or more than one (vōs) i.e. the age, relationship or status of the person / people being addressed is not a factor. The use of vōs in the way that French uses vous to one person in formal / respectful situations does, however, occur in Mediaeval Latin.

[3] mihi can also be found as mī

[4] the preposition cum (with) when used with the ablative pronouns is attached to the end of the pronoun:

mēcum (with me); tēcum (with you), nōbīscum (with us), vōbīscum (with you [pl.])

pax vōbīscum │ peace (be) with you

[5] the genitive pronouns: meī; tuī; nostrum, nostrī; vestrum, vestrī

These should not be confused with the possessive adjectives the endings of which can look the same:

meus, -a, -um: my (mine); amīcus meus │ my friend; amīcī meī │ my friends

tuus, -a, -um: you [sg.] (yours); pecūnia tua │ your money;

In hīs inventae sunt quīnque imāgunculae mātrōnārum, in quibus ūna sorōris amīcī tuī (Cicero) │ In this (baggage) were found five little busts of Roman married ladies, among them one of the sister of your friend

noster, nostra, nostrum: our(s); patria nostra │ our fatherland

Nam Catōnem nostrum nōn tū amās plūs quam ego (Cicero) │ For you do not love our (friend) Cato more than I do

Nunc et nostrī hostēs ibi sunt (Cicero) │ But now our enemies are there

vester, vestra, vestrum: your [pl.] (yours); inimīcī vestrī │ your enemies

The possessive adjectives function like any other adjective, agreeing in case, gender and number with the noun.

They are by far more common and not the same as the genitive pronouns below:

[a] meī; tuī

[b] nostrum, nostrī; vestrum, vestrī

While [a] and [b] can be used to indicate possession, they generally appear in different contexts:

objective genitive

He worked hard for ¦ [i] the love [ii] of his family. (English may also use ‘for’ e.g. He was motivated by [i] hatred [ii] for his enemies)

In the examples, the objects of the love and hatred  are ‘family’ and ‘enemies’ i.e. He worked hard because he loved his family, and he was motivated because he hated his enemies. In Latin, these are expressed in the genitive case, this construction known specifically as the objective genitive.

amor patriae: love of / for the fatherland

odium hostium: hatred of / for the enemies

… ut vōbīscum ¦ dē [i] amōre [ii] reī pūblicae certent (Cicero) │ …in order to vie with you ¦ in [i] love [ii] for the republic

Imperātor ¦ [i] odiō [ii] hostium dūcitur. │ The general is guided ¦ by [i] (his) hatred [ii] of (his) enemies.

This is where these pronouns step in:

ūror [i] amōre [ii] meī (Ovid) │ I burn [i] with love [ii] of / for myself (stated,  unsurprisingly, by Narcissus!)

cāritās tuī │ affection for you [i.e. not *your* affection]

… utrum contrā nōs faciat an prō sē, [i] amōre [ii] alterīus an [i] odiō [ii] nostrī.  (Seneca the Younger) │ … whether he acts against us or for himself, and whether [i] because of love [ii] for another or [i] out of hatred [ii] for us

Habētis ducem [i] memorem [ii] vestrī │ You have a leader (who is) [i] mindful [ii] of you

partitive genitive

The alternative pronouns nostrum and vestrum are used in partitive constructions i.e. the equivalent of, for example “Which one of us will tell the king?” and “Many of you may be killed.”

Quis nostrum? │ Which of us?

Cicero tibi plurimam salutem dicit. Tu dices utriusque nostrum verbis et Piliae tuae et filiae (Cicero) │ Cicero pays you his best respects. Please give the compliments of both of us to your wife (Pilia) and daughter

Mīrum vidērī nēminī vestrum volō, spectātōrēs (Plautus) │ I don’t want to seem strange to any of you, spectators.

28.10.25: Level 3; Diogenes

Diogenēs moriēns dīxit: "Prōiicite mē; nōlīte mē in sepulcrō pōnere.”

Tum amīcī: "Volucribusne et ferīs?" 

"Minimē vērō," inquit, "sed tēlum propter mē pōnitōte: hōc ferās ā mē abigam." 

"Quōmodo poteris?" illī respondērunt: "nōn enim sentiēs."

 "Quid igitur mihi nocēbunt ferārum dentēs et volucrum rōstra, nihil sentientī."

abigō, -ere, abēgī, abāctus [3]: drive away

volucris, -is [3/f]: bird

Notes:

[i] sed tēlum propter mē pōnitōte; future active imperative i.e. a command is being given, not to be performed now but in the future

13.10.25: Level 3; Artayctēs [3]; note [3]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/07/131025-level-3-artayctes-3-i-syncopated.html

[ii] Quid igitur mihi [dative] nocēbunt ferārum dentēs … nihil sentientī [dative]?"

noceō, -ēre [2]: harm; followed by the dative case

How, therefore, will the teeth of wild animals … be harmful to me ¦  feeling / perceiving nothing?

___________________

As Diogenes was dying he said: “Throw me away; do not place me in a tomb.”

Then his friends (said): “To birds and wild beasts?”

“Certainly not,” he said “But you must place a weapon near me: with this I shall drive away the wild beasts from me.”

“How will you be able to (do that)?” they replied to him “for you won’t perceive them.”

“What harm, then, will the teeth of wild beasts and the beaks of birds do to me ¦ if I perceive [literally: perceiving] nothing?”

27.10.25: Level 2; Reading (review): [26] Against the arch-enemy [2] links: [i] perfect, pluperfect and future perfect passive [ii] all posts on the passive

[1] Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect passive: links to earlier posts

https://mega.nz/file/DBlUnKQT#oipBEnlDn4DPxYA9CBn2KJJsDBwZeSeuDRUuDYSnxbo

[2] Passive voice: all posts

https://mega.nz/file/rYkjzCgC#gfnqLlfHt23oFmHeGZyWaNsmtbXQag9Tkwm4rcXJZPs

27.10.25: Level 2; Reading (review): [26] Against the arch-enemy [1]

Cato continues his speech:

“Postquam cōpiae nostrae secundō bellō Pūnicō ad Cannās superātae sunt, populus Rōmānus nōn dēspērāvit. Paucīs annīs nōn sōlum novae cōpiae ā nōbīs parātae, sed etiam Poenī ex Ītaliā fugātī et in Āfricā superātī sunt. Carthāgō nōndum dēlēta est, sed dēlēbitur sine dubiō brevīque interībit. Quis enim ignōrat sociōs nostrōs ā Poenīs lacessī, quem fallit eōs ā nōbīs auxilium petere? Appāret dīvitiās Poenōrum rūrsus crēscere, quamquam ā nōbīs tantae pecūniae requīsītae sunt. Et Hannibal nōn sōlum Carthāgine, sed tōta Āfrica multum valet. Suō locō dē eō dīcam; numquam quiētus erō, dum vīvet! Cēterum cēnseō Carthāginem esse dēlendam!”

Notes:

[1] quem fallit ¦ eōs ā nōbīs auxilium petere?

fallō, -ere, fefellī, falsus [3]: deceive; dupe

fallit: it escapes (one’s notice)

Whom does it deceive = whose notice does it escape │ that they seek help from us?

[2] Quis enim ignōrat ¦ sociōs nostrōs … lacessī [present passive infinitive]…? │ For who is unaware / does not know ¦ our allies to be provoked = … that our allies are being provoked?

[3] Cēterum cēnseō ¦ Carthāginem esse dēlendam

Moreover, I argue that Carthage has to be destroyed

This is an example of the gerundive which was discussed in detail at level 3; links below:

02.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [1]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/020625-level-3-gerundive-1.html

02.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [2]; practice (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/020625-level-3-gerundive-2-practice-1.html

05.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [3]; practice (2)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/050625-level-3-gerundive-3-practice-2.html

05.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [4]; practice (3)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/050625-level-3-gerundive-4-practice-3.html

08.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [5]; purpose

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/080625-level-3-gerundive-5-purpose.html

08.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [6]; practice (4)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/080625-level-3-gerundive-6-practice-4.html

08.06.25: Level 3; the gerundive [7]; practice (5)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/080625-level-3-gerundive-7-practice-5.html

[4]

Carthāgō nōndum dēlēta est │ Carthage has not yet been destroyed

novae cōpiae ¦ ā nōbīs ¦ parātae │ new / fresh troops [that have been] prepared ¦ by us

Poenī ex Ītaliā fugātī │ the Carthaginians [who have been] chased out of Italy

ā nōbīs tantae pecūniae requīsītae sunt │ such large amounts of money have been demanded by us

Poenī … superātī sunt │ the Carthaginians were / have been conquered

cōpiae nostrae … superātae sunt │ our troops were / have been conquered

numquam quiētus erō │ I shall never be quiet / at rest / keep quiet*

*Literally: quiēscō, quiēscere, quiēvī, quiētus [3]: rest; keep quiet. Therefore, the literal  meaning is “I shall never have been kept quiet” but it is often possible simply to translate certain passive participles as adjectives i.e. “quiet”

Carthāgō … dēlēbitur │ Carthage will be destroyed

26.10.25: Level 1; Carolus et Maria [12][iii] principal parts

If you are a non-native speaker of English, or, for example, French or German you will be aware of this even if you don’t know the specific term principal parts.

I play –  he plays – I played – I have played; in English, this is most commonly known as a regular verb i.e. it has a set of endings that are consistently added to thousands of verbs.

But: I sing – he sings – I sang – I have sung; these are generally classified as irregular verbs i.e. their forms cannot be anticipated, but need to be recognised and memorised. English grammar books usually provide a list of these e.g  fall – fell – fallen; break – broke – broken. Once those parts are learned then all other tenses of the verb can be formed, for example:

fall: he falls, he is / was falling, he will fall, he would fall

fell: he fell on the stairs

fallen: he has fallen on the stairs; I would have fallen if I had done that

Latin does the same; most verbs have four principal parts but, for now, just become aware of three of them:

portō, portāre, portāvī [1]: carry

[1] portō: 1^st person singular present tense

[2] portāre: infinitive

[1] and [2] were discussed in the previous section (Carolus et Maria [11][i])

[3] portāvī: 1^st person singular perfect tense

Knowing these becomes increasingly important as you move on and are introduced to other tenses. In the previous section (Carolus et Maria [12][ii]), it was shown that the perfect tense is formed from the 3^rd principal part for example: portō, portāre, portāvī

[i] portāv¦ī

[ii] remove the ending > portāv-; you now have the stem for the perfect tense. Once you have that, it never changes and that applies to all verbs in Latin

[iii] add the perfect tense endings to the stem

portāvī │ I (have) carried

portāvistī │ you (sg.) (have) carried

portāvit │(s)he / it (has) carried

portāvimus │ we(have) carried

portāvistis │ you (pl.) (have) carried

portāvērunt │ they (have) carried

It is the third principal part that needs attention because, as with the English irregular verbs, it very often cannot be anticipated. The image shows some examples of three of the four principal parts of verbs. It isn’t necessary to learn all of these at this stage, but just be aware of what these three parts are and take note of the frequent irregularity of the third part.

From now on, all the verbs in the Carolus et Maria texts will be listed with their principal parts. You are not going to need them all (not yet:

lacrimō, lacrimāre, lacrimāvī [1]: cry

More information is available at the following links:

13.03.24: principal parts of verbs

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/130324-principal-parts-of-verbs.html

13.03.24: Daily routine [1]; the principal parts of verbs

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/130324-daily-routine-1-principal-parts.html

13.03.24: daily routine [2]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/130324-daily-routine-2.html

21.05.24: Level 2: perfect tense [1] stem, endings; first conjugation (1)

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/200524-level-2-perfect-tense-1-stem.html