25.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [27] independent uses [5] optative [iv] practice

[1] with the present subjunctive [wishing that something would (not) happen]

Utinam valeās. │ If only you would be strong.

Utinam nē haesitem. │ If only I would not hesitate.

1. Utinam nē dēspērēs.
2. Utinam Lēda ad Galliam veniat.
3. Utinam vincās.
4. Utinam nē doleam.
5. Utinam Calpurnia adsit.
6. Utinam ad Graeciam veniās.
7. Utinam Diāna appāreat.
8. Utinam nē Medūsa timeat.
9. Utinam tibi liceat discēdere.
10. Utinam praesīs.

[2] with the imperfect subjunctive [wishing that something were (not) happening now]:

Utinam potentior essem. │ Would that I were / if only I were more powerful.

1. Utinam Claudia in Italiā studēret.
2. Utinam nē furerēs.
3. Utinam aquam habērēs.
4. Utinam nē timērēs.
5. Utinam domī tempus agerem.
6. Utinam ille potestātem habēret.
7. Utinam illa esset validior.
8. Utinam nē dolērēs.
9. Utinam mihi licēret discēdere.
10. Utinam in Hispāniā prandērem.

[3] with the pluperfect subjunctive [wishing that something had (not) happened]:

Utinam vēnissent. │ If only they had come.

1. Utinam nē āfuissēs.
2. Utinam Carthāginem vēnissem.
3. Utinam perītior fuissēs.
4. Utinam domina fuisset sapientior.
5. Utinam nē discessissēs.
6. Utinam audācior fuissem.
7. Utinam nē rēx dēspērāvisset.
8. Utinam domum vēnissēs.
9. Utinam nē fūgissēs.
10. Utinam mātrī licuisset abīre.

____________________

[1]

1. If only you would not despair.
2. If only Leda would come to Gaul.
3. If only you would win.
4. If only I would not suffer.
5. If only Calpurnia would be present.
6. If only you would come to Greece.
7. If only Diana would appear.
8. If only Medusa would not be afraid.
9. If only it would be permitted to you to depart = If only you’d be allowed to depart.
10. If only you would be in charge.

[2]

1. Would that / if only Claudia were studying in Italy.
2. Would that / if only you were not raging.
3. Would that / if only you had water.
4. Would that / if only you were not afraid.
5. Would that / if only I were spending time at home.
6. Would that / if only he had power.
7. Would that / if only she were stronger.
8. Would that / if only you were not suffering.
9. Would that / if only it were permitted for me to depart.
10. Would that / if only I were having lunch in Spain.

[3]

1. Would that / if only you had not been away.
2. Would that / if only I had come to Carthage.
3. Would that / if only you had been more skillful.
4. Would that / if only the mistress had been wiser.
5. Would that / if only you had not departed.
6. Would that / if only I had been bolder.
7. Would that / if only the king had not despaired.
8. Would that / if only you had come home.
9. Would that / if only you had not fled.
10. Would that / if only it had been permitted for the mother to depart.

25.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [26] independent uses [5] optative [iii] Latin tutorial

The optative is a very good example of the way in which different tenses of the subjunctive convey different meanings

Utinam veniat! │ If only he would come i.e. the speaker is referring to a hope for the future

Utinam venīret! │ If only he were coming (now) i.e. a wish for something to happen in the present

Utinam vēnisset! │ If only he had come; in grammar, this can be called contrary-to-fact i.e. what is wished for can no longer happen

24.04.26: Describing objects [17]; Cicero against Verres, ‘the art thief’

Gaius Verres was a Roman senator and former governor of Sicily who was accused of abuse of power. Cicero, serving as prosecutor on behalf of the Sicilians, took the case against Verres. In this extract, Cicero accuses Verres of relentless and widespread theft:

negō in Siciliā tōtā, tam locuplētī, tam vetere prōvinciā, tot oppidīs, tot familiīs tam cōpiōsīs, ūllum argenteum vās, ūllum Corinthium aut Dēliacum fuisse, ūllam gemmam aut margarītam, quicquam ex aurō aut ebore factum, signum ūllum aēneum, marmoreum, eburneum, negō ūllam pictūram neque in tabulā neque in textilī quīn conquīsierit, īnspexerit, quod placitum sit abstulerit.

Below is the translation by Peterson (1917)

I say that in all Sicily, in all that wealthy and ancient province, that in that number of towns and families of such exceeding riches, there was no silver vessel, no Corinthian or Delian plate, no jewel or pearl, nothing made of gold or ivory, no statue of marble or brass or ivory, no picture whether painted or embroidered, that he did not seek out, that he did not inspect, that, if he liked it, he did not take away.

• gemma, -ae [1/f]: jewel; gem
• margarita, -ae [1/f]: pearl
• pictūra, -ae [1/f] (1) in tabulā / (2) in textilī: a picture (1) on a panel i.e. painted (2) on cloth (the translator gives this as ‘embroidered’)
• textile, -is [3/n]: cloth; canvas; fabric

However, we can take a second look at a slightly more precise translation because this well-known extract is a typical example of Cicero’s oratory style. There are three features discussed: [a] rhetorical anaphora [b] alliteration [c] tricolon

[1] negō in Siciliā tōtā, tam locuplētī, tam vetere prōvinciā, tot oppidīs, tot familiīs tam cōpiōsīs, (1) ūllum argenteum vās, (2) ūllum Corinthium aut Dēliacum fuisse, (3) ūllam gemmam aut margarītam, quicquam ex aurō aut ebore factum, signum ūllum (1) aēneum, (2) marmoreum, (3) eburneum, [2] negō ūllam pictūram neque in tabulā neque in textilī quīn (1) conquīsierit, (2) īnspexerit, quod placitum sit (3) abstulerit.

[1] I say that in all Sicily — so rich, so ancient a province, with so many towns and so many wealthy households — there was not any / not a single silver vessel, not one piece of Corinthian or Delian ware, not one gem or pearl, not anything made of gold or ivory, not any (1) bronze, (2) marble, or (3) ivory statue;

[2] I say there was no painting, neither on panel nor on fabric / cloth, that he did not (1) search out, (2) examine, and, if it pleased him, (3) carry off.”

[a] He repeats the opening verb (negō: I say … not), a technique known as rhetorical anaphora, the same word or phrase repeated at the beginning of successive clauses or phrases.

[b] alliteration, the repetition of initial consonants:

• in Siciliā tōtā, tam locuplētī, tam vetere prōvinciā, tot oppidīs, tot familiīs tam cōpiōsīs
• neque in tabulā neque in textilī

[c] The tricolon: this is a common rhetorical device in Cicero’s speeches, and has been used by politicians and advertisers ever since -  three parallel words, phrases, or clauses that are roughly equal in length and structure. If you’ve ever been to a London market, the stallholders will loudly attract you with their wares using the same technique that Cicero uses!

“(1) I’m not asking for £20, (2) I’m not asking for £15, (3) I’m not even asking for £8 …D’you know what I’m asking for? £6, you can’t say fairer than that!”

When the three parts increase in length or intensity, it’s called a tricolon crescēns (ascending tricolon or climax).

Cicero repeats words and grammatical endings (ūllum / ūllam; -um; -am; -eum; -erit):

• (1) ūllum argenteum vās, (2) ūllum Corinthium aut Dēliacum … (3) ūllam gemmam aut margarītam
• signum ūllum (1) aēneum, (2) marmoreum, (3) eburneum

This last one is a good example of a tricolon crescēns

• conquīsierit, (2) īnspexerit, … (3) abstulerit i.e. (1) he looked for it (2) he inspected it and, the last word in the entire statement – the climax of the denunciation –  (3) he stole it

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/290524-level-2-side-note.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/290424-tomb-of-scipio-barbatus-im-lovin.html

The entire statement is ‘encircled’ by his opening and closing remarks which essentially summarise his argument:

in Siciliā tōtā │ in all of Sicily … absulerit │ he stole

We’re overwhelmed by the list of precious metals and objects: silver, jewels, pearls, gold, ivory, marble, brass, painted and embroidered pictures. In other words, if Verres saw it, he took it. Not unlike that the old London market stall holder wanting you to buy what’s on offer, Cicero wants to ‘sell’ his argument.

Do you think Cicero won the case?

24.04.26: Level 2 (review); Carolus et Maria [26] [i]: reading and comprehension (1) lower level

Prīma lūx est. Nōn iam est nox, sed lūx nōn est clāra. Avēs nōn iam quiētem capiunt. Omnēs excitantur. Iam arborēs ubi per tōtam noctem dormiēbant relinquunt. Nōn iam avēs silent. Undique audīrī possunt. Ad agrōs properant. Ibi est cōpia frūmentī et avēs cibum dēsīderant. Prīmā lūce collēs Rōmae sunt obscūrī. Nunc Carolus et Maria et pater et māter in summō colle Rōmae stant. Undique circumspectant. Urbs semper nātūrā pulchra nunc etiam pulchrior est. Flūmen nōn longē abest. Ibi paucae nāvēs nāviculaeque vidērī possunt. Caelum nunc clārius vidētur. Ibi nūllae nūbēs sunt et diēs erit pulcher. Diū Americānī silent ubi urbem spectant. Maestī sunt quod hōra appropinquat ubi necesse est Rōmam relinquere. Ubi antīquās ruīnās vident, dē temporibus antīquīs putant: ōlim Rōmānī antīquī in illō flūmine natābant et corpora valida habēbant. In illō locō rēgēs tēcta sua aedificābant. Ibi mīlitēs Rōmānī bellum parābant.

“Ubi est urbs tam pulchra quam Rōma?” rogat Iūlia. “Nūlla pulchrior est in tōtā Eurōpā.”

Subitō vir huic locō appropinquat. Quis est? Poēta amīcōs suōs salūtat. Iam lūx est clārior et urbs clārē vidētur. Omnēs in saxō sedent. Colloquium nōn est longum quod paene est tempus Rōmam relinquere. Mox poēta cum suīs amīcīs viā angustā dē summō colle properat. Prope rīpam Tiberis omnēs “Valēte” inquiunt. Posteā poēta sōlus domum it.

Nunc Americānī ab urbe properant. “Nūlla urbs erit grātior aut pulchrior quam Rōma,” inquit Maria. “Alia exempla urbium antīquārum vidēre cupiō.”

Aedificia urbis nōn iam vidērī possunt. Collēs urbis parvī videntur. Ā sinistrā et ā dextrā sunt agrī et silvae.

“Omnium terrārum,” inquit Iūlia, “Italia est mihi grātissima.”

Section A: Understanding the narrative

[i] At what time of day does the story begin?

[ii] Why do the birds hurry to the fields?

[iii] Where are Carolus, Maria, and their parents standing at the beginning of the scene?

[iv] What can be seen on the river?

[v] Why are the Americans sad?

[vi] What do they think about when they see the ancient ruins?

[vii] Who approaches the group suddenly?

[viii] Why is the conversation short?

[ix] Where do the Americans go after leaving the city?

[x] What does Julia say about Italy at the end of the passage?

____________________

Section A: Understanding the narrative

[i] early morning / dawn / first light

[ii] food available; grain in the fields

[iii] on the highest hill of Rome

[iv] a few boats / small boats

[v] they must leave Rome; the time is approaching

[vi] ancient times / ancient Rome / the past

[vii] a man / a poet

[viii] there is almost no time; it is nearly time to leave Rome

[ix] away from the city into the countryside / fields and woods

[x] Italy is most pleasing to her / her favourite land

23.04.26: Level 1 (review); verbs; first conjugation present tense

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/397175869560354/

22.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [25] independent uses [5] optative [ii] pluperfect subjunctive

[1] Compare:

Present subjunctive: Utinam veniat │ If only he would come (referring to the future)

Imperfect subjunctive: Utinam venīret │ If only he were coming (now i.e. referring to the present)

Pluperfect subjunctive: Utinam vēnisset │ If only he had come (referring to the past)

The pluperfect subjunctive in this context expresses a contrary to fact idea i.e. it is a wish for something that did not happen:

Utinam tē vīdissem │ If only I had seen you (but I didn’t)

Utinam vēnissēs │ If only you had come (but you didn’t)

[2] From the authors:

Ō utinam in thalamōs invīsī Caesaris īssem (Lucanus) │ O, if only I had gone into the chambers of hated Caesar.

Utinam tēcum fuissem, pater (Seneca the Elder) │ If only I had been with you, father

Utinam intervēnissem (Seneca the Elder) │ If only I had intervened

Utinam et illōs servāre potuissem (Seneca the Elder) │ Would that I had been able to save them too.

Sed utinam tantum ego eī prōdesse potuissem … (Cicero) │ But would that I had been able to help him as much …

Utinam … propius tē accessissem (Cicero) │ How I wish I had got nearer to you

Sīc faciendum est, tibi enim ipsī (cui utinam semper pāruissem!) sīc videō placēre (Cicero) │ It must be done this way, for I see it thus pleases you yourself (whom I wish I had always obeyed).

Ruere et aequārī solō utinam arcuissem (Seneca the Younger) │ Would that I had prevented (it) from collapsing and being leveled to the ground.

Utinam iam ante vīdissēs neque tōtum animum tuum errōrī mēcum simul dedissēs (Cicero) │ If only you had seen (it) before, and had not given your whole mind to error together with me

Utinam mē mortuum vīdissēs (Cicero) │ Would that you had seen me dead

Utinam crēdibilia fīnxissēs! (Quintilianus) │ If only you had made up credible (things / stories)!

… mihi vērō mēns integra est. Atque utinam tam in perīculō fuisset (Cicero) │ My mind, indeed, is pure. And would that it had been so in such danger

Quod utinam ipse fēcisset (Quintilianus) │ If only he had done it himself.

Utinam istuc pugnī fēcissent tuī (Plautus) │ If only your fists had done that

Utinam illud nōn verē respondissent (Apuleius Madaurensis) │ If only they had not answered that truthfully

Rōmānīs utinam patuissent castra puellīs! (Propertius) │ If only camps had been open to Roman girls! [ = Would that camps admitted Roman girls!]

22.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [24] independent uses [5] optative [i] present and imperfect subjunctive

From La: optō, -āre [1]: wish

We’ll begin again with some lines from the student song Gaudeāmus igitur. This is what the students wish to happen.

Vīvat Acadēmia, │ May the Academy live [= long live the Academy]

Vīvant professōrēs, │ May the professors live [= long live the professors]

Vīvat Acadēmia,

Vīvant professōrēs,

Vīvat membrum quodlibet, │ May each member live

Vīvant membra quaelibet, │ May all members live

Semper sint in flōre! │ May they always be in bloom!

Semper sint in flōre!

Alternative versions have the following lines:

Pereat trīstitia, │ May sorrow perish,

Pereant ōsōrēs, │ May the haters perish,

Pereat diabolus, │ May the devil perish,

[1] The optative subjunctive is used to express wishes or hopes.

In English, statements such as May he rest in peace or May all your wishes come true can be expressed in Latin using the present subjunctive, for example:

Requiēscat in pāce│ May he rest in peace

May you learn the optative subjunctive from the King!

Vīvat rēgīna / rēx │ Literally: May the Queen / King live = Long live the Queen / King

From the coronation of Charles III and the Queen Consort (with a real OMG! Look on her face) in Westminster Abbey; Anglicised / English ceremonial Latin pronunciation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hxMTI1YbAxw

The construction is most often used with utinam (if only):

Utinam veniat │ If only he would come; the present subjunctive expresses a wish for the future i.e. wishing that something would happen

Utinam mīlitēs vincant │ If only the soldiers would win.

Utinam fēlīx sīs │ Literally: if only you would be happy; would that you may be happy > I hope you may be happy

[2] The negative optative is formed with nē (although it sometimes can be found with nōn):

Utinam nē hoc accidat │ If only this would not happen

[3] Translations may vary from the ‘model’ above, but they still all express the idea of wishing or hoping.

From Plautus:

Dī immortālēs, utinam conveniam domī Periphanem │ By the immortal gods, if only I could meet Periphanes at home

Utinam mea mihi modo auferam, quae adtuli, salva │ If only I might just carry off my own things, which I brought, safe

Utinam audīre nōn queās │ If only you couldn’t hear

Utinam nunc stimulus in manū mihi sit. │ Literally: If only an ox goad would be in my hand now = Oh, if I could only get hold of an ox goad now!

From Cicero:

Utinam illum diem videam │ If only I may see that day / Would that I may see that day

Utinam quidem Antōnium conveniam │ If only / I wish I could meet Antony

Utinam prōficere possim │ If only I could make progress

Utinam modo cōnāta efficere possim │ If only I could just accomplish what I’ve attempted

Atque utinam continuō ad complexum meae Tulliae, … possim currere │ And I only wish I could run straight to the embraces of my Tullia

Quamquam dē ipsā Siciliā utinam sit vērum │ However, I do hope the news about Sicily may prove true

Atque utinam ipse Varro incumbat in causam! │ If only Varro himself were to / I only wish Varro himself would throw his weight into my cause

Utinam … Cotta Sardiniam teneat │ I only hope Cotta may hold Sardinia

Utinam īdem maneat Hortēnsius │ If only Hortensius may stay the same [in context: … may keep the same mind]

Atque utinam potius per populum agat quam per senātum │ And if only he would act through the people rather than through the Senate

Take a second look at the Cicero quotations above: all of them use the present subjunctive and all of them refer to Cicero’s hopes / wishes for something in the future. 

[2] A common phrase on a holiday postcard is “Wish you were here” i.e. English uses ‘were’ to express a situation that the speaker / writer wants to exist now in the present.

Latin does the same: it uses an imperfect subjunctive to convey a wish for something to be happening now, but isn’t; in grammar this is sometimes referred to as an unreal or hypothetical  present.

Utinam hīc nunc essēs, mī amīce. │ If only you were here now, my friend

Utinam mē intellegere posset. │ Would that he could understand me!

Utinam rēs melior esset. │ If only the situation were better

Utinam nōs līberī essēmus! │ If only we were free!

Utinam nē vērē scrīberem! │ If only I were not writing truthfully!

Utinam rēx Eumenēs, utinam Asiae omnēs cīvitātēs adessent (Livy) │ If only King Eumenes, if only all the cities of Asia were present.

From Plautus:

Homō hic ēbrius est, ut opīnor. │ The man is drunk, I do believe

Utinam ita essem. │ I wish I was [ = literally: If only I were (now)]

Utinam lēx esset eadem quae uxōrī est virō │ Would that the law were the same for the woman as it is for the man / If only the law were / would be the same for the wife as for the husband.

From Cicero:

Utinam meō sōlum capite dēcernerem (Cicero) │ Literally: If only I were deciding with my head alone = Would that I had only to decide for myself

Utinam ulcisci possem (Cicero) │ I wish I could take my revenge

Iterum dīcō “utinam adessēs” (Cicero) │ I repeat, I wish you were here [ = if only you were here].

Quod utinam ita esset! (Cicero) │ And if only that were true / so

21.04.26: Describing objects [16]; gemstones (iv); reading: Revelation 21.18-21

The numbers in (brackets) below refer to nouns not previously discussed:

[18] et erat strūctūra mūrī eius ex lapide iaspide (1) │ And the building of the wall was made of jasper (1) stone:

ipsa vērō cīvitās aurō mundō │  but the city itself of pure gold

simile vitrō mundō │ similar to clear glass.

[19] fundāmenta mūrī cīvitātis omnī lapide pretiōsō ōrnāta │ And the foundations of the wall of the city were adorned with all manner of precious stone

fundāmentum prīmum iaspis  │ The first foundation was jasper

secundum sapphīrus  │ the second, sapphire

tertium carcedonius (2)  │ the third; a chalcedony (2)

quārtum zmaragdus │ the fourth, an emerald

[20] quīntum sardonyx (3) │ the fifth, sardonyx (3)

sextum sardīnus (4)│ the sixth, sardius (carnelian) (4)

septimum chrȳsolitus (5)│ the seventh, chrysolite (5)

octāvum bērillus │ the eighth, beryl

nōnum topazius │ the ninth, a topaz

decimum chrȳsoprassus (6) │ the tenth, a chrysoprasus (6)

ūndecimum hyacinthus │ the eleventh, a jacinth

duodecimum amethistus │ the twelfth, an amethyst

[21] et duodecim portae duodecim margarītae sunt ¦ per singulās │ And the twelve gates are twelve pearls, ¦ each one of a single pearl

et singulae portae erant ex singulīs margarītīs │ and the individual gates were made of a single pearl / individual pearls (i.e. emphasis on perfection and unity — each gate being not a composite but one flawless pearl)

et platēa cīvitātis aurum mundum tamquam vitrum perlūcidum │ and the street of the city was pure gold, just like transparent glass

(1) iaspis, iaspidis [3/f]: jasper

(2) carcedonius, -ī [2/m]: calchedony, fine-grained quartz nearly transparent or with a milky translucence

(3) sardonyx, sardonychis [3 m/f]: sardonyx, a gemstone with bands of red

(4) sardius, -ī [2/m]: a carnelian, a reddish-orange semi-precious gemstone; adjective: sardīnus, -a, -um

(5) chrȳsolitus, -ī [2 m/f]: used in the Classical Latin period to refer to topaz, but later acquired the meaning of chrysolite, various green-coloured gems

(6) chrȳsoprassus, -ī [2/m]: chrysoprase, a light-green translucent quartz

20.04.26: Level 1 (review); introduction to numbers and nominative plurals [iv]; video #4

[1] Summary of the forms of ūnus, duo and trēs

I: ūnus (masculine) ūna (feminine) ūnum (neuter)

II: duo (masculine) duae (feminine) duo (neuter)

III: trēs (masculine) trēs (feminine) tria (neuter)

[2] In pictūrā sunt … │ In the picture are …

IV: quattuor equī / puellae / templa │ four horses / girls / temples

V: quīnque puerī / viae / pōcula │ five boys / streets / drinking cups

[3] For most Latin numbers from four onwards, the number does not agree in gender and is normally indeclinable.

IV: quattuor equī [I - V = 1 away from 5 = 4]

V: quīnque puellae

VI: sex viae [V + I = 6]

VII: septem templa [V + II = 5 + 2 = 7]

VIII: octō puerī [V + III = 5 + 3 = 8]

IX: novem librī [I - X = 1 away from 10 = 9; you sometimes see VIIII]

X: decem pōcula

[4] In the singular multus (masculine), multa (feminine) and multum (neuter) means ‘much / a lot of’; in the plural multī (masculine), multae (feminine) and multa (neuter) means ‘many’:

multī equī │ many horses

multae puellae │ many girls

multa pōcula │ many drinking cups

19.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [23] the tenses [4] pluperfect subjunctive [ii] practice

Put the verbs into the appropriate form of the imperfect subjunctive.

[i] First, identify the person and number of the verb

Example:

laudō:  first person singular

[ii] Then identify the perfect stem of the verb

Infinitive: laudāv¦ī > laudāv-

[iii] Add -isse- / -issē- to the perfect stem + the personal ending

So: laudāvissem

1. amō
2. laudās
3. dīcit
4. sumus
5. dūcitis
6. scrībunt
7. abeō
8. audit
9. capis
10. ferimus
11. habeō
12. nōlunt
13. potes
14. sentit
15. trānsītis

____________________

1. amāvissem
2. laudāvissēs
3. dīxisset
4. fuissēmus
5. dūxissētis
6. scrīpsissent
7. abīssem
8. audīvisset
9. cēpissēs
10. tulissēmus
11. habuissem
12. nōluissent
13. potuissēs
14. sēnsisset
15. trānsīssētis

19.04.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [22] the tenses [4] pluperfect subjunctive [i]

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed – for all verbs – in the following way:

[i] perfect tense stem (from the 3^rd principal part)

amō, amāre, amāv¦ī > amāv-

habeō, habēre, habu¦ī > habu-

vīvō, vīvere, vīx¦ī > vīx-

capiō, capere, cēp¦ī > cēp-

audiō, audīre, audīv¦ī > audīv-

[ii] to the perfect stem add -isse-

amāvisse-

habuisse-

vīxisse-

cēpisse-

audīvisse-

[iii] then add the personal endings (and note again the lengthening of /e/ > /ē/ in the 2^nd singular and 1^st / 2^nd plural):

amāvissem, amāvissēs, amāvisset, amāvissēmus, amāvissētis, amāvissent

habuissem, habuissēs etc.

vīxissem, vīxissēs etc.

cēpissem, cēpissēs etc.

audīvissem, audīvissēs etc.

[iv] Irregular verbs are formed in exactly the same way from the perfect stem, for example:

(1) sum, esse, fu¦ī > fu¦issem, fuissēs, fuisset etc.

(2) possum, posse, potu¦ī > potu¦issem, potuissēs, potuisset etc.

(3) eō, īre, i¦ī > (stem vowel + /i/ contract to form a long vowel: i + isse > īsse-) īssem, īssēs, īsset etc.

18.04.26: Describing objects [15]; gemstones (iii); Where are they hiding?

[1] adamās, -antis [3/m]: diamond

If you’re adamant about something, you’re firm, unshakeable in your opinion. The origin of that word is partly hidden in diamonds! Adamās, adamantis – apart from translating as ‘diamond’ – can also refer to the hardest forms of steel or iron, in fact anything that is inflexible and lasting.

adamantīnus, -a, -um: hard as steel

[2] carbunculus, -ī [2/m]: ruby

The word can refer to any reddish-coloured stone e.g. ruby or garnet, or carbuncle. However, ‘carbuncle’ is far more commonly used in English to any kind of cluster of boils forming a connected area of infection. You have a choice: search ‘carbuncle’ in Google images, or simply take my word for it!

It is also a term for an ugly building i.e. an ‘eyesore’ and famously used by the Prince of Wales (now Charles III) to describe the 1984 extension plan for the National Gallery as “a monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much-loved and elegant friend"

[3] ēlectrum, -ī [2/n]: amber

> electric > electrical / electricity

How did that happen?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity

“Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. … Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert wrote De Magnete, in which he made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the Neo-Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ἤλεκτρον, elektron, the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed."

Now you know 😊

ēlectricitās, -tātis [3/f]: (Neo-Latin) electricity

ēlectricus, -a, -um: (Neo-Latin) electric

[4] The popularity of first names can vary over time, some names becoming far less common than they were, say, a century ago. However, some girls’ names have their origins in Latin or Greek:

Beryl (La: bēryllus, -ī; Gk. βήρυλλος / bḗrullos)

Gemma (La: gemma, -ae)

Margaret (La: margarīta, -ae; Gk. μαργαρίτης / margarítēs)

17.04.26: Level 1 (review); introduction to numbers and nominative plurals [iii]; video #3

Video #3: Numbers 1–3 and 2nd declension neuter nouns

[1] 2^nd declension nouns in -um: neuter

templum │ temple / a temple / the temple

pōculum │ drinking cup / a drinking cup / the drinking cup

[2] ūnum is used with neuter nouns

ūnum templum │ one temple

ūnum pōculum

[3] duo is used with neuter nouns (i.e. the same as the masculine nouns)

duo templa  │ two temples

duo pōcula

[4] tria is used with neuter nouns

tria templa │ three temples

tria pōcula

[5] The plural of 2^nd declension nouns in -um is -a

-um > -a

templum > templa

[6] Practice Sentences

Quot templa sunt in pictūrā?

In pictūrā est ūnum templum.

In pictūrā sunt duo templa.

In pictūrā sunt tria templa.

____________________

In pictūrā est ūnum pōculum.

In pictūrā sunt duo pōcula.

In pictūrā sunt tria pōcula.

In the last image of the video, you see three wine cups – but it’s the same wine cup that can change colour. How did the Romans manage that?

16.04.26: Level 3+; Subjunctive [21] independent uses [4] potential [ii]

KEY POINTS: Potential Subjunctive

• expresses a possible or conceivable action or judgment, not a statement of fact
• often corresponds in english to might, could, would, should, or may, typically expressing opinion or hypothetical assessment

Tense usage

[i] Present subjunctive

expresses present or future potential: what might be thought, said, or done now or at some future moment.

[ii] Perfect subjunctive

• expresses potential in much the same way as the present
• often little practical distinction between present and perfect subjunctive in potential uses

[iii] imperfect subjunctive

• expresses hypothetical or unreal circumstances, often referring to an imagined situation rather than simple uncertainty about a past fact
• commonly translated with would or could, and may describe an imagined past experience, not an actual event

16.04.26: Level 3+; Subjunctive [20] independent uses [4] potential [i]

The potential subjunctive is an independent use of the subjunctive that expresses a possible or conceivable action. It often corresponds in English to might, could, would, should, or may, typically in the sense of opinion or hypothetical action rather than statement of fact.

[1] Present Subjunctive: present / future (often general) potential

The present subjunctive expresses what might be thought or done, often in a general or timeless sense, not necessarily tied to a specific future moment.

Contrast with the indicative (statement of fact):

Quis hoc putat? │ Who thinks this?

Subjunctive:

Quis hoc putet? │ Who would think this?

Aliquis dīcat (Terence) │ Someone may say.

Nōn ausim id facere │ I would not dare to do this.

Fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās. (Publius Syrus) │ You may sooner find fortune than (you may) keep it.

Crēdās nōn dē puerō scrīptum sed ā puerō (Pliny) │ You would think that it was written not about a boy but by a boy.

Note the use of forsitan, which can be a “marker” of a potential subjunctive.

Forsitan hoc etiam gaudeat ipsa cinis (Calvus) │ Perhaps the very ash may rejoice in this.

Forsitan quaerātis… (Cicero) │ Perhaps you may ask …

Forsitan occurrat illud │ That may perhaps happen.

Biting example from Cicero:

“Domum,” inquit, “ēmistī.” “Putēs,” inquam, “dīcere: Iūdicēs ēmistī.”
“You’ve bought a house,” he said. “One might think,” I said, “you meant to say: You bought the judges.”

[2] Perfect subjunctive: tentative Assertion / Modest Judgment

The perfect subjunctive can express the same idea as the present, often conveying tentative, cautious, or modest assertion rather than a factual statement.

Dīxerim pauca │ I could say a few things

Crēdiderim │ I should believe.

Id fēcerīs │ You could do this.

Aliquis dīxerit │ Somebody might say.

In this context it often expresses a rather tentative idea:

Dixerim hoc satis esse │ I would say that’s enough.

Dē istō hactenus dīxerim (Cicero) │ Literally: Thus far I may say about this =  I need only say this much.

Not every sentence fits the “rules”: in the next example, the perfect subjunctive conveys a tentative statement about a past action rather than the usual present or future potential:

Forsitan temerē fēcerim (Cicero) │ Perhaps I may have acted rashly.

[3] Imperfect Subjunctive: hypothetical / unreal circumstances

The prisoners in Kander and Ebb’s “Chicago” – justifying the murders of their partners – sing (in bold) a further example of a potential subjunctive!

If you had been there

If you had seen it

I bet you, you would have done the same.

(Cell Block Tango)

Take away the “if’s”:

“You would have done the same.” Even on its own, that sentence refers to unreal circumstances.

Pliny expresses the same idea with the imperfect subjunctive:

Audīrēs ululātūs fēminārum, infantum quirītātūs, clāmōrēs virōrum (Pliny) │ You would have heard the wailing of women, the shrieks of children, the shouting of men.

Here, Pliny is describing what someone would have experienced if they had been present during the Vesuvius eruption.

The imperfect subjunctive (audīrēs) expresses the past hypothetical / unreal circumstances, just like the English example.

The imperfect subjunctive expresses what might have happened in the past, under unreal or hypothetical circumstances. The action did not actually occur; it is purely imagined.

Present subjunctive: Crēdās eum hominem bonum esse │ You might believe that he is a good man.

Imperfect subjunctive: Crēderēs eum hominem bonum esse │ You might have believed that he was a good man.

Other examples:

Crēderēs victōs (Livy) │ You would have thought them defeated.

Reōs dīcerēs (Livy) │  You would have said they were culprits.

Vidērēs susurrōs (Horace)│ You might have seen them whispering.

Cēnam coquerēs │ You could have cooked the dinner.

[4] Important Note: as you learn more tenses and uses of the subjunctive, you will see that a single subjunctive form can have different interpretations depending on context.

Example: Vīvāmus Rōmae

[i] Hortatory: Let’s live in Rome

[ii] Potential: We could live in Rome

Context determines whether the speaker is urging action (hortatory) or expressing potential.

Similarly:

Maneās in villā meā

[i] Jussive: You may / should stay in my house; Stay in my house: giving a command or strong suggestion. The speaker wants this to happen.

[ii] Potential: You could stay in my house: expressing possibility or hypothetical action. The speaker is considering or stating what could happen, without urging it.

Id fēcerīs

[i] Jussive: You may / should do this.

[ii] Potential: You could do this.

However, at this stage, it is best not to go into too much detail or interpret subtle nuances based on context. It is enough to be aware that such nuances exist.

15.04.26: Describing objects [14]; gemstones (ii)

The Ancient Romans knew and prized a wide variety of gemstones, both native to their empire and imported through vast trade networks stretching from, for example, India, Arabia and Egypt.

In Book XXXVII of The Natural History (Nātūrālis Historia), Pliny the Elder describes more than 200 varieties of gemstone although not always accurately. Here we will only look at a few nouns and adjectives that we might want to use to describe our own possessions and, with that aim in mind, I have given ‘standardised’ meanings of some of these (all of which are verified); early references to certain precious stones may have been more general, referring to the colour of certain types rather than an indication of the specific gemstone with which their names are now associated.

gemma, -ae [1/f]: gem; jewel

• gemmātus, -a, -um: adorned with precious stones / jewels

… quod vulgō Sabīnī aureās armillās magnī ponderis bracchiō laevō gemmātōsque magnā speciē ānulōs habuerint (Livy) │ … because most of the Sabines wore heavy golden bracelets on their left arms and magnificent jewelled rings, …

adamās, -antis [3/m]: diamond; its first meaning, however, is the hardest iron or steel

amethystus, -ī [2/m]: amethyst

• amethystinus, -a, -um: of the colour amethyst

Amethystināsque mulierum vocat vestēs (Martial) │ and calls amethyst-coloured robes the dress of women

bēryllus (bērillus), -ī [2/m]: beryl; greenish-blue gemstone; aquamarine

carbunculus, -ī [2/m]: reddish precious stone, possibly ruby or garnet (the image shows a garnet ring); (Mediaeval) rubīnus, -ī [2/m]: ruby

crystalum, -ī [2/n]: crystal

corallium, -ī [2/n]: coral; it usually refers to the reddish-orange variety

ēlectrum, -ī [2/n]; succinum, -ī / sūcinum, -ī  [2/n]; glaesum, -ī [2/n]: amber*

sapphīrus, -ī [2/m]: sapphire; image: part of the collection of the Earl of Arundel from 1637 to 1762, and sold at auction in 2019 by the Royal jewelers Wartski for almost £500,000, the sapphire ring puportedly belonged to the Roman Emperor Caligula, depicting his wife Caesonia.

• sapphīrinus, -a, -um

et vīdērunt Deum Isrāhēl sub pedibus eius quasi opus lapidis sapphīrinī (Vulgate) │ They saw the God of Israel. Under his feet was like a (paved) work of sapphire stone, …

margarīta, -ae [1/f]: pearl

Et duodecim portae duodecim margarītae sunt per singulās et singulae portae erant ex singulīs margarītīs: et platēa cīvitātis aurum mundum, tamquam vitrum perlūcidum (Vulgate) │  And the twelve gates are twelve pearls, each one of a single pearl, and the individual gates were made of a single pearl / individual pearls: and the great street of the city was pure gold, just like transparent glass

onyx, onychis [3 m/f]: onyx

• onychinus, -a, -um

et aurum terrae illīus optimum est ibique invenītur … lapis onychinus (Vulgate)│ and the gold of that land is good, and the onyx stone … is found there

opalus, -ī [2/m]: opal

smaragdus, -ī [2/m] (also zmaragdus): emerald

• smaragdīnus (zmar-), -a, -um

Celsus describing a type of medical plaster:

At, quia perviride est, zmaragdinum appellātur │ But, because it is bright green, it (a plaster) is called emerald-like

topazos / topazus, -ī [2/m]; topazius, -ī [2/m]: topaz; also:

• chrȳsolithos, -ī [2/m]; chrȳsolithus, -ī [2 m/f]  

* The English term ‘amber’ itself is a very good example of displacement i.e. where original Old English words are replaced – sometimes they are ‘reassigned’ to new or variant meanings, or sometimes they simply cease to exist. OE had several words that could refer to amber: smelting, eolhsand, glǣr, sāp. In this case, they are not replaced by a Latin word, but by Middle French a(u)mbre which has its origins in Arabic and Persian.