Latin for Learners

Sunday, March 2, 2025

eō, īre (go) is classified as an irregular verb in that it does not conform precisely to the way in which other verbs are formed. Despite this, it still has the same personal endings. What is unusual about the verb is that almost all those endings are attached to a single vowel

e¦ō: I go

ī¦s: you (sg.) go

i¦t: he / she / it goes

ī¦mus: we go

ī¦tis: you (pl.) go

eu¦nt: they go

compound verbs

a compound verb is one that is made of two or more parts e.g. over¦eat, black¦mail, under¦estimate etc. In Latin, compound verbs are often created with prefixes, many of which also function as prepositions. Here are a few examples although other compounds with eō exist.

ā / ab [(away) from] > ab¦eō, abīre: go away; depart

ad [towards] > ad¦eō, adīre: go to; approach

circum [around] > circum¦eō, circumīre: go around; surround

ē / ex [out of] > ex¦eō, exīre: go out

in [in(to) > on] in¦eō, inīre: go into

trāns [across] > trāns¦eō, trānsīre: go across

The prefix re- in English in, for example, reread and renew is derived from Latin re(d)- with the same original idea of ‘again’ or ‘back’: redeō, redīre: go back; return

Another commonly found example is: praeter (preposition + accusative): past > praeter¦eō, praeterīre: go past

The slightly odd one is per¦eō, perīre, using the preposition per (through) as a prefix: its meaning is ‘to perish; pass away; die’

You might want to remember this Mediaeval line:

Novus, novus amor est quō pereō!

It’s a new, new love by which I perish!

A word of advice / warning: Latin verbs can have multiple meanings which, while still rooted in the basic sense of the verb, are used to convey many abstract concepts e.g.

domum inīre: to go into a house, but bellum inīre (begin a war), consilium inīre (take a resolution)

You can fall into the trap of becoming too involved in what can be lists of definitions. When reading Latin, the best approach is to look at the use of a word in context (many good publications will provide notes) while bearing in mind the root meaning of the word.

30.05.25: Level 3; summary of the uses of the ablative case [11]: [i] the ablative of time when [ii] the ablative of time within which; practice

Complete the Latin translations with the words and phrases listed below. All of them are examples of the ablative of time when.

In the first year he conquered the Helvetians and in the same year many tribes of Germans surrendered. │ __________ Helvētiōs vīcit, et __________ multae Germānōrum gentēs sēsē dēdidērunt.

At midday Julia calls him to dinner. │ __________ Iulia eum ad cēnam vocat.

In summer the farmers’ sons give help to (their) father. │__________ fīliī agricolae auxilium patrī dant.

That night the girl ran from the fields. │ __________ puella ab agrīs cucurrit.

In autumn the leaves fall. │ __________ folia dēcidunt.

on the twenty-second day │ __________ diē

In the same month the captives were also sent to Italy. │__________ captīvī quoque in Ītaliam missī sunt.

on the third day before the Ides of January │ __________ ante īdūs Iānuāriās

aestāte; alterō vīcēsimō; autumnō; diē tertiō; eōdem annō; eōdem mēnse; illā nocte; merīdiē; prīmō annō

[2] Complete the sentences with the phrases listed below. All of them are examples of the ablative of time within which:

In a few days’ time, I shall go to Rome. │ __________ Rōmam ībō.

The planet Saturn completes its orbit within thirty years. │ Stella Sāturnī __________ cursum cōnficit.

We will be parents in nine months’ time. │ __________ parentēs erimus.

We will capture the city within three hours. │ Urbem __________ capiēmus.

We will leave within three days. │ __________ discēdēmus.

Within a short time Cornelia is tired. │ __________ Cornēliā dēfessa est.

brevī tempore; novem mēnsibus; paucīs diēbus; tribus diēbus; tribus hōrīs; trīgintā annīs

30.05.25: Level 3; summary of the uses of the ablative case [10]: [i] the ablative of time when [ii] the ablative of time within which

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_pOY9MqRZg

Note: not from the same Latin Tutorial videos that have been referred to before; this one looks only at the two ablative usages discussed here.

[i] the ablative of time when: when referring to a specific point or period in time e.g. a clock time, a season, a year, the ablative without a preposition is used:

horā quartā │ at the fourth hour

prīmā lūce │ at dawn

nocte │ at night

hieme │ in winter

annō secundō │ in the second year

eōdem diē │ on the same day

[ii] as the term would suggest, the ablative of time within which indicates the period during which an action take place

tribus proximīs annīs │ within the next three years

paucīs hōrīs │ within a few hours

Diēbus vīgintī quīnque aggerem exstrūxērunt. (Caesar) │ Within twenty-five days they finished building a mound.

Cēnābis bene, mī Fabulle, apud mē │ You will dine well, my Fabullus, at my house

paucīs, sī tibi dī favent, diēbus, │ in a few days, if the gods favour you

Gaius Valerius Catullus

Image #4: expressions of time can be sub-divided into:

[1] Time when: refers to a specific point in time e.g. They set sail on the same day (eōdem diē).

[2] Time within which: the period of time taken to complete an action e.g. They will have reached the island within three days (tribus diēbus).

[1] and [2] have been discussed above. Both use the ablative case.

[3] Duration of time: for how long an action takes place; this is expressed in Latin by the accusative case:

Graecī Troiam multōs annōs oppugnāvērunt. │ The Greeks attacked Troy for many years.

Compare:

Quīnque hōrīs [ablative of time within which] ad urbem vēnērunt. │ They came to the city within five hours.

Quattuor annōs [accusative of duration] in illā urbe labōrāvit. │ He worked in that city for five years.

30.05.25: Level 3; UK GCSE Latin [2]; notes on [i] the subjunctive of purpose, [ii] the subjunctive of result

Part [2]

[i] Translate the following parts of the story into English.

This passage describes how Cleopatra visited Rome.

Cleopatra Caesarī fīlium suum ostendere magnopere volēbat; Rōmam igitur celeriter nāvigāvit. cum Caesare ac parvō puerō in urbe habitāre cōnstituit. Caesar eōs in suam domum libenter accēpit. brevī tempore tamen senātōrēs, quī imperium eius timēbant, Caesarem occīdērunt. Cleopatra in Aegyptum redīre coācta est. ibi trēs annōs rēgnāvit.

Words

senātor, senātōris m: senator

rēgnō, rēgnāre, rēgnāvī: I reign

[ii] Note: this passage contains a grammatical point that has not yet been covered. I will refer to it briefly at the end.

Now continue with your translation.

In this passage, Cleopatra meets Mark Antony.

Cleopatra, quamquam erat optima rēgīna, invidiam virōrum nōbilium timēbat. auxilium Rōmānōrum igitur vehementer cupiēbat. forte Mārcus Antōnius, imperātor Rōmānus, quī comes fidēlis Caesaris fuerat, prope Aegyptum cum quattuor legiōnibus iter faciēbat. Cleopatra prōgressa est ut eum salūtāret; quī, simulatque eam cōnspexit, gaudēbat; nam fēminam pulchriōrem illa numquam vīderat. tantus erat amor Antōniī ut sine eā vīvere nōllet.

Names

Mārcus Antōnius, Marcī Antōniī m: Mark Antony

Words

rēgīna, rēgīnae f: queen

invidia, invidiae f: jealousy

nōbilis, nōbilis, nōbile: noble

auxilium, auxiliī n: help

gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum: I am happy

Note:

Two examples in this text of the subjunctive, a feature of the language that has been referred to but not yet covered in any detail:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/02/070225-speaking-latin-on-campus_49.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/02/070225-speaking-latin-on-campus_26.html

However, this won’t prevent you from understanding the phrases:

[1] Cleopatra prōgressa est ¦ ut eum salūtāret

[2] tantus erat amor Antōniī ¦ ut sine eā vīvere nōllet

The conjunction ut can translate as [1] in order to (do something); so that (he might do something) i.e. it can express purpose, and [2] “so that” in the sense of “with the result that ..” i.e. it expresses the outcome of the action

[1] the subjunctive of purpose

John went to the store and bought a cake [action concluded]. │ John went to the store to buy a cake [action unconcluded]; the second sentence indicates purpose but it does not indicate that the action was fulfilled. Maybe in the end he did buy a cake but, at the moment the sentence is stated, the action remained unfulfilled.

In ‘older’ English: John went to the store so that / in order that he might buy a cake. English speakers would rarely use that now, but it does exist:

People were bringing little children to him in order that / so that he might touch them (Vulgate transl.)

Cleopatra prōgressa est ¦ ut eum salūtāret │ Cleopatra went forward ¦ literally: in order that she might greet him = in order to greet him

[2] the subjunctive of result

ut here is used to express the outcome of the action in the main clause; it is often signalled by words such as tantus, -a, -um (so great) or tam + adjective e.g. tam fortis (so brave) or tot (so many):

Erant tot aedificia ¦ ut omnia vidēre nōn possem. │ There were so many buildings ¦ that I could not see them all.

tantus erat amor Antōniī ¦ ut sine eā vīvere nōllet │ Antony’s love was so great ¦ that he did not wish to live without her

For reference only since the subjunctive is an extensive topic:

The imperfect subjunctive is being used in the sentences. It is easy to form:

infinitive + personal endings added to the infinitive with no other changes apart from certain vowel lengths; this applies to all verbs both regular and irregular

[1]

[i] infinitive: salūtāre (greet)

[ii] add personal endings; note vowel lengths in italics

salūtārem

salūtārēs

salūtāret

salūtārēmus

salūtārētis

salūtārent

Cleopatra prōgressa est ¦ ut eum salūtāret

[2]

[i] infinitive: nōlle (to be unwilling)

[ii] add personal endings; note vowel lengths in italics

nōllem

nōllēs

nōllet

nōllēmus

nōllētis

nōllent

tantus erat amor Antōniī ¦ ut sine eā vīvere nōllet

29.05.25: Level 2; Sonnenschein; Ora Maritima; Pāx Violāta [2]; listening

Listen to the recording without looking at the transcript.

"Britannī pācem nōn violāverant, sed Rōmānī pācis nōn cupidī erant. Itaque aestāte annī quartī et quinquāgēsimī ante Christum nātum dux Rōmānus cum quinque legiōnibus mīlitum Rōmānōrum et magnō numerō equitum et auxiliōrum Gallicōrum iterum in Britanniam nāvigāvit. Tempestās erat idōnea, sed in mediā nāvigātiōne ventus nōn iam flābat; itaque mīlitibus necesse erat nāvigia rēmīs incitāre. Impigrē rēmigāvērunt, et postrīdiē nāvigia ad ōram Britannicam prosperē applicāvērunt. Labor rēmigandī magnus erat, virtūs mīlitum magnopere laudanda. Britannī Rōmānōs in scopulīs ōrae maritimae exspectābant; sed postquam multitūdinem nāvigiōrum et mīlitum equitumque spectāvērunt, in fugam sē dedērunt. Caesar nāvigia sua inter Dubrās et Rutupiās applicāvit, ut putō, nōn procul ā locō quō priōre annō applicāverat. Inde contrā Britannōs properāvit. Intereā ūnam legiōnem cum trecentīs equitibus ad castra in statiōne reservābat: nam perīculōsum erat nāvigia ad ancorās dēligāta dēfensōribus nūdāre."

[1] Which of the following statements are true (T) or false (F)?

["Britannī pācem nōn violāverant, sed Rōmānī pācis nōn cupidī erant. Itaque aestāte annī quartī et quinquāgēsimī ante Christum nātum dux Rōmānus cum quinque legiōnibus mīlitum Rōmānōrum et magnō numerō equitum et auxiliōrum Gallicōrum iterum in Britanniam nāvigāvit. Tempestās erat idōnea, sed in mediā nāvigātiōne ventus nōn iam flābat; itaque mīlitibus necesse erat nāvigia rēmīs incitāre. Impigrē rēmigāvērunt, et postrīdiē nāvigia ad ōram Britannicam prosperē applicāvērunt.]

[i] The Britons had violated peace agreements.

[ii] The Romans did not want peace.

[iii] They sailed to Britannia in the spring of 54BC.

[iv] They sailed to Britannia in the spring of 54AD.

[v] They sailed to Britannia in the summer of 54BC.

[vi] They had five legions and a large number of cavalry.

[vii] They had a large number of cavalry and Germanic auxiliary forces.

[viii] They sailed in favourable weather.

[ix] The wind kept blowing.

[x] They had to row the ships.

[2] Answer the questions with single words or short phrase:

[Impigrē rēmigāvērunt, et postrīdiē nāvigia ad ōram Britannicam prosperē applicāvērunt. Labor rēmigandī magnus erat, virtūs mīlitum magnopere laudanda. Britannī Rōmānōs in scopulīs ōrae maritimae exspectābant; sed postquam multitūdinem nāvigiōrum et mīlitum equitumque spectāvērunt, in fugam sē dedērunt]

[i] How did they row the ships?

[ii] When did they reach the British coastline?

[iii] What was the rowing like?

[iv] How are the soldiers described?

[v] Where were the Britons waiting?

[vi] (a) What did the Britons eventually do and (b) why?

[3] Complete the Latin text by referring to the English translation and using the words and phrases listed below.

[Caesar nāvigia sua __________ Dubrās et Rutupiās __________, __________, nōn __________ ā locō quō __________ annō __________. __________ __________ Britannōs properāvit. __________ ūnam legiōnem cum __________ equitibus ad castra in __________ reservābat: nam __________ erat nāvigia ad ancorās __________ dēfensōribus __________."]

Caesar steered his ships between Dover and Richborough, in my opinion, not far from the place (to) where he had steered his ships the previous year. From there he rushed against the Britons. Meanwhile he held in reserve one legion with 300 cavalarymen on watch at the camp, for it was dangerous to deprive of defenders the ships tied together at anchor.

applicāverat; applicāvit; contrā; dēligāta; inde; inter; intereā; nūdāre; perīculōsum; priōre; prōcul; statiōne; trecentīs; ut putō

29.05.25: Level 2; Sonnenschein; Ora Maritima; Pāx Violāta [1]; text; exercise

Vocabulary review: Match the Latin and English

applicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
dēligō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
eques, equitis [3/m]
flō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
idōneus, -a, -um
impiger, impigra, impigrum
incitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
inde
laudandus, -a, -um
nūdō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
pāx, pācis [3/f]
prosperus, -a, -um
rēmigō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
rēmus, -ī [2/m]
scopulus, -ī [2/m]
statiō, statiōnis [3/f]

(military) watch; blow; cavalryman; cliff; deprive; energetic; from there; oar; peace; praiseworthy; row; steer; successful; suitable; tie together; urge forwards

28.05.25: Level 1; readings [12] - [15]: review (3); possessive adjectives

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Latin_for_beginners_(1911)/Part_II/Lesson_XIV

[i] This is my shield.

[ii] This shield is mine.

In the first sentence my is a possessive adjective; in the second mine is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, this shield is mine being equivalent to this shield is my shield. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes adjectives and sometimes pronouns.

Images #1 - #3: the possessives my, mine, your, yours, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.

Singular

meus, mea, meum: my, mine

tuus, tua, tuum: your, yours

eius: his, her(s), its

suus, sua, suum: his (own), her (own), its (own)

Plural

noster, nostra, nostrum: our, ours

vester, vestra, vestrum: your, yours

eōrum, eārum: their(s)

suus, sua, suum: their (own), theirs

Notes:

[i] meus has the irregular vocative singular masculine mī, as mī fīlī, O my son.

[ii] When your, yours, refers to one person, use tuus; when to more than one, vester:

Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty │ Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae

Girls, your wreaths are pretty │Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae

[iii] the possessives, as in, for example, French, German and Russian, agree with the name of the thing possessed in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in:

Sextus magistrum suum videt. │ Sextus sees his teacher.

Iūlia magistrum suum videt. │ Julia sees her teacher.

suum agrees with magistrum, and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia

[iv] Suus is a reflexive possessive and regularly refers back to the subject.

Vir suōs servōs vocat │ The man calls his (own) slaves.

Here his (suōs) refers to man (vir), and could not refer to any one else (see [v] below).

[v]

eius: his / her(s) / its; eius does not change according to gender or case

eōrum [masculine / neuter]; eārum [feminine]: their(s); it also does not change according to case

Compare the difference in usage from [iv] above:

Vir suōs servōs vocat │ The man calls his (own) slaves.

Vir servōs eius vocat │ The man calls his (somebody else’s) slaves.

[vi] Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. When translating from Latin into English, the inclusion of his, her etc. may often be necessary even if the original Latin does not use the equivalents. This is especially true of suus, -a, -um which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our his own, her own, etc.

Vocabulary

auxilium, auxiliī [2/n]: help, aid

castrum, -ī [2/n]: fort; (plural) camp

cibus, -ī [2/m]: food

cōnsilium, cōnsiliī [2/n]: plan

dīligentia, -ae [1/f]: diligence, industry

magister, magistrī [2/m]: master, teacher

aeger, aegra, aegrum: sick

crēber, crēbra, crēbrum: frequent

miser, misera, miserum: wretched, unfortunate

Exercise

Translate the following sentences:

Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat.
Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs.
Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant.
Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra.
Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrīs Rōmānīs sunt.
Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt.
Ubi, Cornēlī, est tua galea pulchra?
Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā.
Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus.
Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant.
Nostra castra sunt vestra.
Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs.
Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant.
Magister noster dīligentiam Mārcī laudat.
Fīlius meus Sextus praedam suam in castra Rōmāna portat.
Puellae tuae bonae aegrīs et miserīs auxilium dant.
Sunt proelia crēbra in vīcīs nostrīs.
Ubi, mī fīlī, est cibus lēgātī?
Castra sunt mea, sed tēla sunt tua.

Saturday, March 1, 2025

02.03.25: Comenius XXVI; Apes, long-tailed monkeys … and forest men!

I wonder if all the kids who read this in 1658 ran home and begged their parents for a pet cercopithēcus …

Four-footed beasts and first those about the house │ Quadrupeda: & prīmum Domestica.

The Dog, 1. with the Whelp, 2. is keeper of the House. │ Canis, 1. cum Catellō, 2. est cūstōs Domūs.

The Cat, 3. riddeth the House of Mice, 4. which also a Mouse-trap, 5. doth. │ Fēlis* (Catus) 3. pūrgat domum ā Mūribus, 4. quod etiam Mūscipula, 5. facit.

A Squirrel, 6. The Ape, 7. and the Monkey, 8. are kept at home for delight. │ Sciūrus, 6. Sīmia, 7. & Cercopithēcus, 8. habentur domī dēlectāmentō.

The Dormouse, 9. And other greater Mice, 10. as, the Weesel, the Marten, and the Ferret, trouble the House, │ Glīs, 9. & cæterī Mūrēs majōrēs, 10. ut, Mustēla, Mārtēs, Viverra, īnfestant domum.

*usually: fēlēs, but fēlis does exist

cūstōs, cūstōdis [3/m]: guard; keeper; watchman

pūrgō, -āre [1]: clean; purge

cæterī = cēterī; cēterus, -a, -um: the remaining / other(s) / rest

Notes:

[i] passive

sciūrus, sīmia, et cercopithēcus habentur domī │ a squirrel, the ape and the monkey are kept at home

[ii] glīs, glīris [3/m]: dormouse

The Romans were fond of the dormouse – as a snack:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/614138271197445/

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/408755725069035

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/408938048384136/

Some of the images show Roman depictions of these animals (not the mousetrap one!) … and the saddest image of all: the dog that never made it out of Pompeii because it was chained.

Comenius wrote this work in 1658 and gives vocabulary for the ape (sīmia) and the long-tailed monkey (cercopithēcus); 4 years later, Gustave Schott wrote twelve books entitled Physica Curiosa the first six focussing on “all natural and supernatural monstrosities known at that time, including bizarre animals and physical abnormalities and abstract ideas of the mind” (Wikipedia) In this work Schott writes about the …

homō sylvestris │ a forest man

Moreover, he includes a picture [reproduced below] with a note to the right referring, correctly, to the location of this tall ‘man’ – standing upright and covered entirely in hair – as Java. I can only assume that Schott had never seen one, and was relying on travellers’ tales who may have been listening to local descriptions. Unlike the rough, but pretty close depictions of the ape and the monkey in the Comenius work, Schott is actually talking about the orang utan from Malay orang (man) and hutan (forest), the Malay term itself not attested until 1840 and reflecting the description of the animal by the English.

27.05.25: Level 3; the gerund [2]; practice

Complete the Latin translations with the gerunds listed below.

[a]

[1] A love of reading is good. │ Amor __________ est bonus.

[2] By putting on games the emperor delighted the citizens. │ Lūdōs __________ imperātor cīvēs dēlectābat.

[3] Cicero was famous in the art of speaking. │ Cicerō clārus erat arte __________.

[4] Claudius entered the dining room to have dinner. │ Claudius in trīclīnium ad __________ intrāvit.

[5] Fabius saved the state by delaying. │ Fabius __________ rem pūblicam servābat.

[6] Icarus did not have a fear of flying. │ Īcarus timōrem __________ nōn cēpit.

[7] Is there a danger in running through the streets of the city? │ Estne perīculum in __________ per viās urbis?

[8] She is desirous of seeing you. │ Cupida tē __________ est.

[9] The prince is not suitable for ruling. │ Prīnceps nōn est aptus __________.

[10] The sailors were preparing the ship for sailing. │ Nautae nāvem ad __________ parābant.

[11] The soldiers are training to fight. │ Mīlitēs ad __________ exercent.

[12] They saved him by shouting very loudly. │ Clārissimē __________ eum servāvērunt.

[13] Titus came home to sleep. │ Titus ad __________ domum vēnit.

[14] We left our country to live without enmity. │ Nostrā patriā discessimus ad __________ sine inimīcitiā.

[15] We were unhappy in waiting for a very long time. │ Diūtissimē __________ īnfēlīcēs sumus.

cēnandum; clāmandō; cūnctandō; currendō; dormiendum; edendō; exspectandō; legendī; loquendī; nāvigandum; pugnandum; rēgnandō; videndī; vīvendum; volandī

[b] the gerund with causā and grātiā:

[1] On my word, I do not ask it for the sake of defrauding you. │ Neque edepol tē __________ causā poscō (Plautus)

[2] Do not touch any oil by way of use (using) or pilfering │ Oleum nē tangitō __________ causā neque __________ causā (Cato)

[3] … and yet they dared not send ambassadors to Caesar for the purpose of either rejecting or deprecating (protesting; expressing disapproval) │ … neque __________ aut __________ causā lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittere audēbant (Caesar)

[4] That was given me by Nature for the purpose of speaking, not of losing my property │ __________, nōn rem __________ grātiā haec nāta est mihi. (Plautus)

[5] Scipio had sent two legions there to forage │ Hūc Scīpiō legiōnēs duās __________ grātiā mīsit (Bellum Africum)

dēfraudandī (or defrudandī); dēprecandī; dīcendī; frūmentandī; fūrandī; perdendī; recūsandī; ūtendī

27.05.25: Level 3; the gerund [1]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/121224-level-1-topic-school-4-arts.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/611381141473158/

[1] A gerund is a verbal noun i.e. a noun which is formed from a verb with, in English, the use of -ing; verbal nouns refer to the act / process of doing something:

I like [i] football [noun] │ I like [ii] skateboarding [verbal noun], hiking, cooking etc.

I think that boxing is a dangerous sport and I dislike foxhunting.

Seeing is believing.

[2] Latin creates gerunds by adding -ndum to the stem of the verb:

visitō, -āre [1] > visita¦ndum [= visiting i.e. the act of visiting; the gerund functions as a 2^nd declension singular neuter noun in -um].

visitō, -āre [1] > visitandum

moneō, monēre [2] > monendum

discō, discere [3] > discendum

capiō, capere [3-iō] > capiendum

audiō, audīre [4] > audiendum

[3] The gerund has no nominative case.

Nominative: -

Genitive: visitandī

Dative: visitandō

Accusative: visitandum

Ablative: visitandō

[i] In a phrase such as “seeing is believing”, which are verbal nouns in English but both of which are in the nominative case in Latin, the infinitive is used:

vidēre est credere; compare Fr. voir [infinitive] c’est croire [infinitive]; Gmn. Sehen [infinitive] ist Glauben [infinitive]

[ii] The infinitive is also used when the act of doing something is the direct object of the sentence, for example:

I love swimming [ = I love to swim] │amō natāre

[4] Apart from the nominative, the gerund can be used in all other cases and can be followed by a direct object:

Genitive

ars loquendī [genitive]│ the art of speaking

*Cupidī erant Rōmānī insulam nostram … vīsitandī [genitive] et explōrandī [genitive] │ Literally: the Romans were desirous … of visiting and (of) exploring our island

Dative

*Dat operam agrōs colendō [dative]. │ He attends to tilling fields.

Accusative

ad + the accusative of the gerund can express purpose

Ad legendum vēnit. │ He came to read / for the purpose of reading.

*Ad legendum librōs vēnit. │ He came to read books.

Mē vocās ad scrībendum. │ You summon me to write.

Ablative

Legendō [ablative] legere discimus. │ We learn to read by reading.

*Legendō librōs legere discimus. │ We learn to read by reading books.

Terit tempus scrībendō epistulās. │ He spends time in writing letters.

Rex currendō fūgit. │ The king fled by running.

*[5] Look again at the examples above with an asterisk:

Ad legendum [gerund] + librōs [direct object; accusative] vēnit. │ He came ¦ to read books.

Legendō [gerund] + librōs [direct object; accusative] legere discimus. │ We learn to read ¦ by reading books.

Terit tempus scrībendō [gerund] + epistulās [direct object; accusative] │ He spends time ¦ in writing letters.

Cupidī erant Rōmānī insulam nostram [direct object; accusative] … vīsitandī et explōrandī [gerund]. │ The Romans were desirous … ¦ of visiting and exploring our island.

Dat operam agrōs [direct object; accusative] colendō [gerund]. │ He attends ¦ to tilling fields.

All of these have a direct object with the gerund. While the sentences are perfectly correct Latin, there is a preferred parallel construction known as the gerundive which will be the next topic.

[6] causā + the gerund; grātiā + the gerund

Both causā (+genitive) and grātiā (+genitive) mean on account of; for the sake of and they follow the noun:

urbis causā: for the sake of the city

Both can be also used with the gerund to express purpose:

pugnandī causā: for the purpose of fighting

Ulixēs in terram ¦ frūmentandī causā ¦ ēgressus est. │ Ulysses went out onto the land ¦ for the sake of / purpose of obtaining corn.

quotannīs singula milia armātōrum ¦ bellandī causā ¦ ex fīnibus ēdūcunt (Caesar) │ they yearly send from their territories a thousand armed men ¦ for the purpose of waging war

neque longius annō remanēre ūnō in locō ¦ colendī causā ¦ licet (Caesar) │ nor are they permitted to remain more than one year in one place ¦ for the purpose of residence [ = residing].

simulandī grātiā: in order to deceive [ = for the purpose of deceiving]

[i] pābulandī [ii] lignandīque aut etiam [iii] mūniendī grātiā (Bellum Africum) │ for the purpose of [i] foraging (for food), [ii] obtaining wood, or even [iii] building fortifications

27.05.25: Level 3; past papers; UK GCSE [1]

I'm going to include extracts from past examination papers (UK GCSE and US NLE) which will give a good indication as to how far you've progressed. This one is the early part of a UK GCSE Latin examination (for 16-year-olds). These two questions are at the easiest level. However, as Level 3 continues, I'll include more challenging tasks. The formatting is reproduced exactly as it appeared on the examination paper except that I have added macrons to the text.

Part [1]

rēx Aegyptī duōs līberōs habēbat. hī līberī erant Cleopatra et
Ptolemaeus. per multōs annōs līberī vītam laetam cum patre habēbant.
deinde post mortem patris Cleopatra erat rēgīna. sed frāter eius rēx esse
volēbat. Ptolemaeus, quamquam erat puer, multōs mīlitēs convocāvit et
sorōrem ex Aegyptō in Syriam facile expulit. Cleopatra paucōs annōs ibi
habitābat, sed in Aegyptum redīre magnopere cupiēbat.
Iūlius Caesar erat imperātor Rōmānus. forte Caesar cum multīs
legiōnibus in Syriam advēnit. Cleopatra, simulatque eum cōnspexit,
auxilium eius rogāvit. eī facile persuāsit, quod pulcherrima erat. Caesar
Ptolemaeum necāvit et Cleopatram rēgīnam iterum fēcit. tum Caesar
illam in Aegyptō relīquit et Rōmam rediit. mox Cleopatra fīlium eius
peperit.

Names

Aegyptus, Aegyptī f: Egypt

Cleopatra, Cleopatrae f: Cleopatra

Ptolemaeus, Ptolemaeī m: Ptolemy

Syria, Syriae f: Syria (a country near Egypt)

Iūlius Caesar, Iūliī Caesaris m: Julius Caesar (a general)

Words

rēgīna, rēgīnae f: queen

expellō, expellere, expulī, expulsus: I drive out

auxilium, auxiliī n: help

pariō, pārēre, peperī, partus: I give birth to

(a) rēx ... Ptolemaeus (lines 1-2): how many children did the king of Egypt have? [1]

(b) per multōs annōs līberī vītam laetam cum patre habēbant (line 2): what are we told here about the life led by Cleopatra and Ptolemy? [2]

(d) Which is the best translation of frāter eius rēx esse volēbat (lines 3-4)? Tick your chosen answer. [1]

(A) their brother wanted to be king

(B) her brother wanted to be king

(D) he wanted his brother to be king

(e) Ptolemaeus ... expulit (lines 4-5): which two of the following statements are true? [2]

A many soldiers called to Ptolemy

B Ptolemy called many soldiers together

C Ptolemy drove out Cleopatra

D Cleopatra drove out Ptolemy

(f) Cleopatra ... cupiēbat (lines 5-6):

(i) where did Cleopatra live? [1]

(ii) how long did she live there? [1]

(iii) what did she want to do? [1]

(g) forte ... advēnit (lines 7-8): who went into Syria with Caesar? [2]

(h) Cleopatra ... rogāvit (lines 8-9):

(i) what did Cleopatra do? [2]

(ii) when did she do this? [1]

(i) eī facile persuāsit, quod pulcherrima erat (line 9): why was Cleopatra successful in persuading Caesar? [1]

(j) Caesar ... fēcit (lines 9-10): what did Caesar do after killing Ptolemy? [1]

(k) tum ... peperit (lines 10-12): how do we know that Caesar and Cleopatra were lovers? [2]

26.05.25: Level 2; Sonnenschein: Expedītiō Prīma C. Iūliī Caesaris [2](2)

“Alia quoque causa bellī fuerat avāritia et exspectātiō praedae. Cupidī erant Rōmānī insulam nostram ignōtam et remōtam vīsitandī et explōrandī; nam, ut Tacitus affirmat, ignōtum prō magnificō est. Itaque annō quintō et quinquāgēsimō ante Christum nātum C. Iūlius Caesar expedītiōnem suam prīmam contrā Britannōs comparāvit, et victōriam reportāvit, ut narrāvī; nam post ūnum proelium Britannī veniam ā victōribus implorāvērunt. Sed expedītiō nōn magna fuerat; neque Rōmānī ullam praedam ex Britanniā reportāverant, nisi paucōs servōs et captīvōs. Annō igitur proximō imperātor Rōmānus secundam et multō maiōrem expeditiōnem in Britanniam parāvit. Nam sescenta nāvigia onerāria in Galliā aedificāvit, et quinque legiōnēs Rōmānās ūnā cum magnā multitūdine auxiliōrum Gallicōrum in ōram Belgicam congregāvit.”

Listen to the recording without looking at the transcript and answer the questions [a], [b] or [c]

A cause of the war was [a] a desire to obtain more land [b] an attack from the Britons [c] a desire for riches
The Romans wanted to [a] explore and visit Britain [b] conquer Britain [c] make peace with Britain
The first expedition was [a] 45AD [b] 55BC [c] 55AD
The Britons fought [a] 1 battle [b] 2 battles [c] 3 battles with the Romans
The Romans brought back [a] many slaves [b] a few slaves [c] nothing.
The second expedition took place [a] later in the same year [b] two years later [c] the following year.
The expedition was [a] much larger [b] a little larger [c] the same size.
The expedition comprised [a] 600 battle ships and five legions [b] 60 transport ships and five legions [c] 600 transport ships and five legions.
The Romans [a] were attacked by the Gauls [b] had Gallic auxiliary forces [c] landed at the British coast.

26.05.25: Level 2; Sonnenschein: Expedītiō Prīma C. Iūliī Caesaris [2](1)

“Alia quoque causa bellī fuerat avāritia et exspectātiō praedae. Cupidī erant Rōmānī insulam nostram ignōtam et remōtam vīsitandī et explōrandī [i]; nam, ut Tacitus affirmat, ignōtum prō magnificō est [ii]. Itaque annō quintō et quinquāgēsimō ante Christum nātum C. Iūlius Caesar expedītiōnem suam prīmam contrā Britannōs comparāvit, et victōriam reportāvit, ut narrāvī; nam post ūnum proelium Britannī veniam ā victōribus implorāvērunt. Sed expedītiō nōn magna fuerat; neque Rōmānī ullam praedam ex Britanniā reportāverant, nisi paucōs servōs et captīvōs. Annō igitur proximō imperātor Rōmānus secundam et multō maiōrem expeditiōnem in Britanniam parāvit [iii]. Nam sescenta nāvigia onerāria in Galliā aedificāvit, et quinque legiōnēs Rōmānās ūnā cum magnā multitūdine auxiliōrum Gallicōrum in ōram Belgicam congregāvit.”

Vocabulary review: Match the Latin and English

avāritia, -ae [1/f]
comparō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
cupidus, -a, -um
ignōtus, -a, -um
legiō, legiōnis [3/f]
multitūdō, multitūdinis [3/f]
nisi
onerārius, -a, -um
paucī, -ae, -a
praeda, -ae [1/f]
proximus, -a, -um
reportō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]
sēscentī, -ae, -a
ūllus, -a, -um
venia, -ae [1/f]
victor, victōris [3/m]

600; a few; a large number; adjective: transport / cargo; any; bring back; conquerer; desirous; except; forgiveness; get together; greed; legion; next; plunder; property taken in war; unknown

[i] Cupidī erant Rōmānī insulam nostram ignōtam et remōtam vīsitandī et explōrandī │ The Romans were desirous of visiting and (of) exploring our island.

visītandum and explōrandum are examples of gerunds, which were first discussed here:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/121224-level-1-topic-school-4-arts.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/611381141473158/

All the information on the gerund is here:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/270525-level-3-gerund-1.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/775441468400457/

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/270525-level-3-gerund-2-practice.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/775443715066899

In English grammar they are sometimes known as verbal nouns because they describe the performing of the action which the verb describes.

[ii] ignōtum prō magnificō est │ the unknown always passes for the marvellous; a phrase used by Tacitus (Dē Vītā Iūliī Agricolae)

[iii] the ablative of degree of difference

Discussed here:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/201124-level-2-degrees-of-comparison-9.html

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/582369574374315/

Latin tutorial:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a2lb9pTnEo

multō maiōrem expeditiōnem … parāvit │ he prepared a much bigger expedition

multō (ablative case) maiōrem: the ablative of degree of difference which is used in comparisons and equates to English expressions such as “much bigger” “much more quickly” i.e. “much” indicates the extent of the comparison and Latin conveys this idea with by multus in the ablative case + the comparative of the adjective or the adverb

patria mihi multō cārior est quam vīta mea │ my country is much dearer to me than my life

multō celerius │ much more quickly

25.05.25: Level 1; readings [12] - [15]: review (2b); 2nd declension nouns in –(e)r; 1st / 2nd declension adjectives in -er; reading

Vocabulary

ager, agrī [2/m]: field

cōpia, -ae [1/f]: plenty, abundance; (plural) troops, forces

Cornēlius, Cornēliī [2/m]: Cornelius

lōrīca, -ae [1/f]: coat of mail, corselet

praemium, praemiī [2/n]: reward, prize

puer, puerī [2/m]: boy

Rōma, -ae [1/f]: Rome

scūtum, -ī [2/n]: shield

vir, virī [2/m]: man, hero

legiōnārius, -a, -um: legionary, belonging to the legion; as a noun, legiōnāriī, -ōrum [2/m/pl.]: legionary soldiers

līber, lībera, līberum: free; as a noun, līberī, -ōrum [2/m/pl]: children (literally: the freeborn)

pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum, pretty, beautiful

apud (+ accusative): among, with acc.

sed: but

[1] Italia

Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum. Tiberim, fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs?* Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populi Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia.

*quis nōn laudat … fluviō [dative] fīnitimōs agrōs? │ Who does not praise the fields bordering upon the river?

[2] Dialogue: Marcus and Cornelius

C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā?

M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā, Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs Rōmānīs quia est fāma novī bellī cum Germānīs. Liber Germāniae populus Rōmānōs nōn amat.

C. Estne fīlius tuus cōpiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus?

M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs.

C. Quae arma portat?

M. Scūtum magnum et iōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat.

C. Quae tēla portat?

M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat

C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum?

M. Amat, et saepe filiō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat.

C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum?

M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī, est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō.

LEGIŌNĀRIUS