13.01.25: Level 2; the passive voice [20]: the perfect passive [1]; three-in-one: the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect passive; the fourth principal part / the perfect passive participle

Image #1: It might seem a tall order to suggest that three passive tenses can be learned at the same time. However, you don’t have three separate tenses to learn but only one new form of the verb.

If you learned English as a non-native language, then most likely you would have seen this pattern:

see – saw – seen i.e. three parts which give you the basic information as to how the rest of the verb is formed. These are called the principal parts.

[1] see > to see > I see > I am seeing > I shall see etc.

[2] saw > I saw, you saw etc.

But it’s the third part that matters here

[3] seen: this is known in English grammar as the past participle

In English we can divide its use into two:

[i] I have seen, I had seen etc. i.e. it is used to create certain tenses of active verbs

[ii] he is seen, he was seen, he has been seen etc. i.e. it is also used to create the passive voice of all verbs

Latin has the equivalent of [3] [ii] i.e. a participle that is used to create three passive forms; it is not used to create the equivalent of English “I have done something”; Latin uses the one-word perfect tense for that.

Perfect passive: he was seen, or he has been seen

Pluperfect passive: he had been seen

Future perfect passive: he will have been seen

Image #2: The Latin equivalent of the English past participle is known as the perfect passive participle. Note again the term “passive”.

English has three principal parts: see – saw – seen

Most Latin verbs have four principal parts:

[1] First principal part: videō; the first person singular present tense

[2] Second principal part: vidēre; the present active infinitive

[3] Third principal part: vīdī; the first person singular perfect tense

And now we have the fourth - and final - principal part:

[4] vīsus, -a, -um: the perfect passive participle and, so as not to lose sight of what it means, we’ll translate it not just as ‘seen’ because that might lead you to believe it is identical to its English equivalent with more than one function, but as having been seen i.e. it is used only in passive constructions and refers to an action that was / has been completed or had been completed or will have been completed.

The past passive participle acts like a 1^st / 2^nd declension adjective i.e. it agrees in gender and number with the subject of the verb. A dictionary listing will usually only give the masculine singular form e.g. vīsus

The singular endings for the participle, a first / second declension adjective, are: Masculine: -us (amātus); Feminine:  -a (amāta);  Neuter: -um (amātum)

The endings for plural forms are:  Masculine: -ī (amātī); Feminine:  -ae (amātae); Neuter: -a (amāta)

Image #3: examples of perfect passive participles / the fourth principal part to give you an overview; note that the ending is either –tus or –sus and it is usually only the masculine form that is listed

amō, amāre, amāvī, ¦ amātus, [-a, -um] [having been loved]

videō, vidēre, vīdī, ¦ vīsus [having been seen]

dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ¦ ductus [having been led]

capiō, capere, cēpī, ¦ captus [having been captured]

audiō, audīre, audīvī, ¦ audītus [having been heard]

Image #4: This fourth principal part can be confusing because it will be listed either as [i] amāt¦us or [ii] amāt¦um.

[i] If the dictionary lists amātus – having been loved - that is the perfect passive participle (which is what concerns us)

[ii] If it lists amātum that is a form known as the supine, a verb form that rarely occurs and will be discussed at a later point.

Whether you see [i] or [ii] it doesn’t matter: if the 4th principal part listed ends in -us, then you’re ready to go > amātus, -a, -um. If it ends in -um, change it to -us and you’re still ready to go.

The image, which was used in an earlier post, shows two different dictionary entries for the same verb. The first listing shows the verb as the perfect passive participle, but the second listing shows the supine form. Don’t be put off by that because the supine in -um can become a perfect passive participle i.e. frāctum > frāctus, -a, -um: having been broken

Image #5: formation of the three passives; overview

In short, what you need to know is one form i.e. the perfect passive participle. Once you have that all you are doing to create three different passive forms using that participle with the three different tenses of esse

Perfect passive: vocātus sum │ I was / have been called

Pluperfect passive: vocātus eram  │ I had been called

Future perfect passive: vocātus eram │ I shall have been called

But compare the Latin with the English translation because the Latin tenses and the English tense equivalents don’t match:

vocātus sum [present tense of esse] │ I was / have been called

vocātus  eram [imperfect tense of esse] │ I had been called

vocātus erō [future tense of esse] │I shall have been called

Perfect passive: vīsus est │ he was / has been seen [NOT he is seen]*

Pluperfect passive: vīsus erat │ he had been seen [NOT he was seen]*

Future perfect passive: vīsus erit │ he will have been  seen [NOT he will be seen]

*There are occasions in translation where, dependent upon context, the perfect passive may be translated literally, one of the best examples being the first line of Caesar's dē bellō Gallicō:

Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs │ Gaul is as a whole divided into three parts i.e. the participle is functioning more like an adjective describing the general state rather than an action being done. However, it is best to keep to the rule that the present tense of esse + the perfect passive participle conveys was or has been done.

12.01.25: Level 1; Julia, a Latin Reader (Reed) [4](1)

annus, -ī [2/m]: year

iuvencus, -ī [2/m]: bullock

lūdus, -ī [2/m]: school

ager, agrī [2/m]: field

magister, magistrī [2/m]: teacher

puer, -ī [2/m]: boy

tabula, -ae [1/f]: tablet i.e. the Roman wax tablets used for writing with a stylus

impavidus, -a, -um: fearless

laetus, -a, -um: happy

[1] Laeta est Iūlia quod iterum casam parvam cum agricolā habitat. Sed Iūlia puella duodecim annōrum iam est. Itaque agricola fīliae suae tabulās dat. Pecūniam quoque lūdī magistrō dat.

Each statement contains one error.

Iūlia magnam casam habitat.

Iūlia cum pīrātā habitat.

Iūlia misera est quod iterum cum agricolā habitat.

Iūlia tredecim annōs nāta est.

Agricola fīliae suae librōs dat.

Aurum lūdī magistrō dat.

[2] Cottīdiē puella ad lūdum per agrōs ambulat. Multī iuvencī in agrīs sunt, sed impavida est puella. Iūlia prandium ad lūdum cottīdiē portat, quod longa est via. In agrīs prandium est Iūliae grātum*.

*grātus, -a, -um: pleasing; this is a common way of saying that somebody likes something: prandium est Iūliae grātum │ the lunch is pleasing to Julia = Julia likes the lunch

Each statement contains three errors.

1. Interdum puella ad oppidum per viās ambulat.
2. Multae vaccae in fluviis sunt; puella perterrita est.
3. Iūlia cēnam ad lūdum portat quod vīta brevis est.
4. In thermopōliō ientāculum est agricolae grātum.

[3] Complete each sentence by choosing the correct form of the noun

1. Julia carries (her) tablets to school. │ Tabulās ad ¦ [a] lūdī [b] lūdō [c] lūdum ¦ Iūlia portat.
2. There are many letters in the tablets. │ In [a] tabulīs [b] tabulās [c] tabulae ¦ litterae [a] multīs [b] multae [c] multās ¦ sunt.
3. The school teacher [= the teacher / master of the school] praises Julia because she recites the letters well every day. │ [a] Lūdum [b] Lūdī [c] Lūdō magister ¦ Iūliam laudat quod ¦ [a] litterās [b] litterīs [c] litterae ¦ bene cottīdie recitat.
4. In the school there are many boys [and] many girls with Julia. │ In [a] lūdum [b] lūdī [c] lūdo ¦  multī [a] puerī [b] puerōs [c] puerīs, ¦ multae [a] puellīs [b] puellae [c] puellās ¦ cum [a] Iūliā [b] Iūliam [c] Iūliae ¦ sunt.
5. The teacher governs / runs the school well. │ Magister ¦ [a] lūdō [b] lūdī [c] lūdum ¦ bene gubernat.

12.01.25: level 1; topic; school [21]; science [3]; Physica Curiosa (1662) [2] vocabulary and notes; ablative of description

Despite the bizarre nature of the images and descriptions, those extracts from Physica Curiosa contain a lot of useful vocabulary and also show a particular use of the ablative case.

Vocabulary

[1] animals

agnus, -ī [2/m]: lamb

animal, -is [3/n]: animal

aquila, -ae [1/f]: eagle

avis, -is [3/f] bird

dracō, dracōnis [3/m]: dragon; serpent

gallus, -ī [2/m]: rooster

mōnstrum, -ī [2/n]: monster; a thing of wonderment

ōvum, -ī [2/n]: egg

proboscis, -is [3/f]: snout; trunk of an elephant

rōstrum, -ī [2/n]: beak

sūs, suis [3 m/f]: pig

vitulus, -ī [2/m]: bull calf

vulpēs, vulpis [3/f]: fox; vixen

• ānser, -is [3/m]: goose > ānserinus, -a, -um: pertaining to a goose; rōstrum ānserinum: a goose’s beak
• canis, -is [3 m/f]: dog > canīnus, -a, -um: pertaining to a dog; caput canīnum: a dog’s head
• elephantus, -ī [2/m]: elephant > elephantīnus, -a, -um: pertaining to an elephant; caput elephantīnum: an elephant’s head

[2] people

epīscopus, -ī [2/m]: bishop

homō, hominis [3/m]: man; human (being); person

īnfāns, īnfantis [3 m/f]: infant

monachus, -ī [2/m]: monk

puella, -ae [1/f]: girl

puer, -ī [2/m]: boy

pūsiō, pūsiōnis [3/m]: young boy; lad

vir, -ī [2/m]: man

[3] body parts

barba, -ae [1/f]: beard

bracchium, -ī [2/n]: forearm

capillus, -ī [2/m]: can refer to a single hair or the entire hair of the head; also used in the plural

caput, capitis [3/n]: head

collum, -ī [2/n]: neck

digitus, -ī [2/m]: finger; toe

natis, -is [3/f]: rump; buttock (usually in the plural: natēs)

oculus, -ī [2/m]: eye

ōs, ōris [3/n]: mouth

pēs, pedis [3/m]: foot

venter, ventris [3/n]: belly

Notes: ablative of description

The ablative of description is used when referring to a quality / characteristice or physical attribute which a person has; English would normally use ‘with’

[i] ablative singular examples

puer ¦ capite elephantinō │ a boy ¦ with an elephant’s head

īnfāns ¦ apertō ventre │ an infant ¦ with an open belly

īnfāns cornūtus ¦ ōre patulō │ a horned infant ¦ with a gaping mouth

agnus ¦ ōre trigeminō │ a lamb ¦ with a three-fold mouth

effigiēs, -ēī [5/f]: likeness > mōnstrum marīnum ¦ effigiē [ablative] monachī │ a sea monster ¦ with the likeness of a monk

habitus, -ūs [4/m]: (here) dress; attire > vir marīnus ¦ epīscopī habitū │ a marine man in the attire of a bishop

[ii] ablative plural examples

vitulus biceps ¦ quat(t)uor oculīs │a two-headed calf ¦ with four eyes

pūsiō ¦ digitīs diminūtīs │ a lad ¦ with diminished (reduced) fingers

vitulus bicorpor ¦ capitibus canīnīs│ a calf having two bodies ¦ with dogs’ heads

foetus ¦ quaternīs brācchiīs et pedibus │a foetus ¦ with four forearms and feet

homō ¦ pedibus āversīs │a man ¦ with (his) feet turned around

Check your vocabulary by looking at the nouns in the wordcloud

12.01.25: level 1; topic; school [20]; science [2]; Physica Curiosa (1662) [1] text

Latin from Renaissance texts is a good source of vocabulary for the various branches of science, but you also get a sense of a transition in terms of thinking.

Image #1: Physica Curiosa was written in 1662 by the priest and scientist Gaspar Schott; there are a total of twelve books, the first six focussing on “all natural and supernatural monstrosities known at that time, including bizarre animals and physical abnormalities and abstract ideas of the mind” (Wikipedia). There is a parallel book by Schott entitled Technica Curiosa referred to in an earlier post when the terms for musical instruments were discussed.

There are some interesting commentaries on Physica Curiosa, one of which, I think, hits the nail on the head:

“By the end of the 17th century, electricity, the telescope and microscope, calculus, universal gravitation, Newton’s Laws of Motion, air pressure and calculating machines had entered the scene. And yet, as with all great shifts in cultural thinking, the transition from superstition to science was not instantaneous. Many of the era’s great thinkers attempted to reconcile previous beliefs with new discoveries. Case in point: Monsters.”

https://blog.biodiversitylibrary.org/2013/05/monsters-scientific-revolution-and.html

Of his own work Schott writes: other people have reported the wondrous things, that I am writing down here - yet they only tell. But I put most of it on the scales of truth and separate the true from the false, the real from the fake, and then I try to investigate the causes of the individual phenomena. … I do not approve of all because I know that some are doubtful, if not false. Others are superstitious and perhaps even manifestly false.

The book is extensively illustrated and I’ve posted some examples here since Schott gives the Latin for very peculiar creatures – and, sadly, a few not so peculiar. Some of the physical abnormalities shown i.e. the conjoined twins and the boy with shortened limbs and fingers does, I feel, show that ‘overlap’ between what existed and what did not. If you’ve seen the deeply distressing movie “The Elephant Man”, then [iii] below will touch a nerve since the Victorians were still comparing that awful disorder to the features of an elephant.

The one I found the most fascinating was the reference to homō sylvestris: the forest man, and Schott accurately gives it location as Java. Of course, they do exist but not quite the way the illustration portrays them: homo sylvestris = man of the forest = Malay: orang (h)utan!; Malay hutan: forest

[i]

mōnstrum marīnum effigiē monachī │ a sea monster with the likeness of a monk

vir marīnus epīscopī habitū │ a sea man in the clothing of a bishop

[ii]

mōnstrum ālātum │ a winged monster

mōnstrum cornūtum │ a horned monster

cum pede rapācis avis │ with the foot of a ravenous bird

[iii]

puer capite elephantinō │ a boy with an elephant’s head

īnfāns cornūtus ōre patulō │ a horned infant with a gaping mouth

[iv]

homō acephalus │ a headless man

homō monoculus │ a one-eyed man

homō pedibus āversīs │ a man with feet turned round

[v]

mōnstrum triceps capite vulpis, dracōnis et aquilae │ a three-headed monster with the head of a fox, a dragon and an eagle

[vi]

gallus mōnstr(u)ōsus │ a monstrous rooster

hūmāna effigiēs in ōvō │ a human likeness in an egg

locō capillōrum et barbae │ in the place of hair and a beard

habēns colla et rōstra ānserīna │ having the necks and beaks of a goose

[vii]

foetus (fētus) quaternīs brā(c)chiīs et pedibus │ a foetus with four arms and feet

īnfāns apertō ventre │ an infant with an open stomach

pūsiō digitīs diminūtīs │ a lad with diminished fingers

[viii]

homō sylvestris │ a forest man

homō villōsus │ a hairy man

[ix]

Īnfantēs duo iuxtā natēs conglūtinātī │ two infants buttocks joined together

[x]

puella pilōsa │ a hairy girl

[xi]

īnfāns cum promuscide* │ infant with a snout

et capitibus animālium │ and the heads of animals

* promuscis: a corrupt form of proboscis, -is [3/f]: snout; trunk of an elephant

[xii]

sūs biceps │ a two-headed pig

agnus biceps │ a two-headed lamb

vitulus biceps quat(t)uor oculīs │ a two-headed calf with four eyes

vitulus bicorpor capitibus canīnīs │a calf with two bodies and the heads of dogs

agnus ōre trigeminō │ a lamb with three mouths

11.01.25: Level 2: the passive voice [19]; present passive infinitive

Until now you have only seen one infinitive form, which we can now describe as the present active infinitive since it is used to form active verbs

1st conjugation

laudāre: to praise │ -āre

2nd conjugation

monēre: to warn │ -ēre

3rd and 3rd-iō conjugation

dūcere: to lead │ -ere

capere: to capture │ -ere

4^th conjugation

audīre: to hear │ -īre

These infinitives, however, also have equivalent passive forms i.e. the present passive infinitive:

The first, second and fourth conjugations all do the same: the /e/ of the infinitive is changed to -ī

1^st laudāre │to praise > laudārī │ to be praised

2^nd monēre │ to warn > monērī │ to be warned

4^th audīre │ to hear > audīrī │ to be heard

3^rd and 3^rd-iō conjugation verbs add -ī directly to the stem of the verb:

dūc¦ere │ to lead > dūc¦ī │ to be led

cap¦ere │ to capture > cap¦ī │ to be captured

sed ego dēfēnsōrem in meā persōnā, nōn accūsātōrem maximē laudārī volō (Cicero) │ but I wish the defender of others to be praised in my person, not the accuser. 

quod et dīcī ōrnātissimē possunt et audīrī facillimē (Cicero) │ …because they can both be said most eloquently and (be) heard most easily

… nisi molestum vīs vidērī tē atque ignāvom. (Plautus) │ … unless you want yourself to appear [= to be seen] troublesome and cowardly

id voluit, nōs sīc nec opīnantēs dūcī falsō gaudiō (Terence) │ He meant this, that we, thus unsuspecting, be led away by delusive joy

Id mihi dīcī volō. (Plautus) │ I want that to be told to me.

"Dē eīs, crēdō, rēbus," inquit Crassus "ut in crētiōnibus scrībī solet: …” │ "I believe I must answer," says Crassus, "as is customary to be written [= is usually written] in inheritances 

Būbus pābulum hōc modō parārī darīque oportet. (Cato) │ Feed for cattle should be prepared and (be) given in this way.

An potest graviōribus ā mē verbīs vulnerārī (Cicero) │ He cannot be wounded by me with more severe words.

Hoc quoque, Nāsō, ferēs: etenim peiōra tulistī; iam tibi sentīrī sarcina nūlla potest. (Ovid) │ This too, Naso, you will bear: for worse have you borne; no burden can be felt by you any more [=  you are no longer able to feel a burden of any kind]

The active and passive infinitive in the same statement:

ut igitur et [i] monēre et [ii] monērī proprium est vērae amīcitiae (Cicero) │ As, therefore, it is characteristic of true friendship both [i] to advise and [ii] to be advised

I have uploaded an edited version of the Latin Tutorial video that focusses on the uses of the present passive infinitive that are necessary to know at this stage. If you do want to know more the link to the full video is:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_7BVFBmbAs

Quick reading

The infinitives in the word cloud are either active or passive; match them with the English infinitives below:

1. to attack
2. to punish
3. to be defended
4. to be deceived
5. to plough
6. to be guarded
7. to read
8. to be ploughed
9. to be punished
10. to deceive
11. to be read
12. to be thrown
13. to be taught
14. to defend
15. to throw
16. to be attacked
17. to guard
18. to hold
19. to teach
20. to be held

10.01.25: Level 1; Julia, a Latin Reader (Reed) [3](2)

Match the words and phrases in bold with the Latin in the wordcloud; one Latin word is used twice

[1] Nominative

• Julia is with the pirates 
• the farmer exclaims 
• the pirates say
• the sailors give 

[2] Genitive

• the farmer’s anger
• towards the pirates’ ship
• towards the sailors’ cottages 

[3] Dative

• the sailors give their boat to the farmer 
• the farmer gives a lot of money to the pirates 

[4] Accusative

• he calls Julia 
• towards the cottage 
• he seizes a helmet and a spear 
• the pirates carry Julia to the farmer’s boat 
• the farmer calls the pirates 
• the sailors seize helmets and spears
• towards the cottages

[5] Ablative

• in our boat
• in the cottage 
• on the table 
• with the farmer 
• with the pirates 

10.01.25: level 1; topic; school [19]; science [1]

philosophia nātūrālis (natural philosophy): the general term used for the study of chemistry, botany and physics until the 19^th century when the sciences were reclassified and became separate subjects such as the three studied at school:

biologia, -ae [1/f]: (New Latin) biology

chēmia, -ae [1/f] or chīmia, -ae [1/f]: (New Latin) chemistry, a shortened form of Mediaeval Latin alchēmia and alchīmia: alchemy, the turning of base metals into gold; the word was borrowed from Arabic اَلْكِيمِيَاء [al-kīmiyāʔ]: chemistry and Anc. Gk. χῠμείᾱ [khumeíā]: alchemy; also: ars chēmica

physica, -ae [1/f]: (New Latin) physics

scientiae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: the Sciences

anatomia, -ae [1/f]: anatomy

astronomia, -ae [1/f]: astronomy; both astronomia and astrologia were first used to refer to the study of the stars, the latter subsequently adopting the meaning that we use now i.e. the study of the supposed influence the stars have on our lives

chīrūrgia, -ae [1/f]: surgery

herbāria, -ae [1/f]: botany; also: ars herbāria

medicīna, -ae [1/f]: medicine

scientia, -ae [1/f] māchinālis: engineering

zōologia, -ae [1/f]: (New Latin) zoology 

09.01.25: Level 2; the passive voice [18]; future passive [4]; 3rd, 3-iō, 4th conjugation [2]; translation practice

Complete the Latin sentences with the appropriate future passive verb from the wordcloud. The answers are at the end but try the exercise first.

[a] I shall be heard by all the citizens │Ab omnibus cīvibus [1] __________

[b] From then on whatever I will be, always will I be called your image (Propertius) │ Illīc quidquid erō, semper tua [2] __________ imāgō

[c] You will be found │ [3] __________

[d] You will be sent │ [4] __________

[e] Whose will you be said to be? (Catullus) │ Cuius esse [5] __________?

[f] What! You very bad boy! You’ll be punished by the teacher, won’t you? │ Quid, pessimē puer! Nōnne ā magistrō [6] __________?

[g] You will all be punished │ Vōs omnēs [7] __________

[h] A beautiful brooch will be sent to Tullia │ Ad Tulliam fibula pulchra [8] __________.

[i] A lot of business will be conducted │ Multum negōtium [9] __________

[j] The town will be captured │ Oppidum [10] __________

[k] Cornelius will be heard by many people │Cornēlius ā multīs [11] __________

[l] Never again will all life be destroyed by the waters of a flood (Vulgate) │ Nēquāquam ultrā [12] __________ omnis carō aquīs dīluviī

[m] The enemy’s spies will be guarded in prison │ Speculātōrēs hostium in carcere [13] __________.

[n] Many words will be said and (will be) heard about the fatherland │ Multa verba dē patriā [14] __________ et [15] __________.

agētur;audiar; audientur; audiētur; capiētur; cūstōdientur; dīcar; dīcentur; dīcēris; interficiētur; inveniēris; mittēris; mittētur; pūniēminī; pūniērīs

____________________

[a] Ab omnibus cīvibus audiar

[b] Illīc quidquid erō, semper tua dīcar imāgō

[c] inveniēris

[d] mittēris

[e] Cuius esse dīcēris?

[f] Quid, pessimē puer! Nōnne ā magistrō pūniērīs?

[g] Vōs omnēs pūniēminī

[h] Ad Tulliam fibula pulchra mittētur.

[i] Multum negōtium agētur

[j] Oppidum capiētur

[k] Cornēlius ā multīs audiētur

[l] Nēquāquam ultrā interficiētur omnis carō aquīs dīluviī

[m] Speculātōrēs hostium in carcere cūstōdientur

[n] Multa verba dē patriā dīcentur et audientur.

08.01.25: Level 1; Julia, a Latin Reader (Reed) [3](1)

Agricola ad casam venit. Fīlia parva nōn est in casā. Tum agricola, "Iūlia," exclāmat, "fīlia mea, ubi es?"

Iterum Iūliam vocat, sed frūstrā – nūlla est puella. Cēna nōn est in mēnsā parāta, nec rosae in mēnsā sunt. Tum ad ōram maritimam properat et procul nāviculam albam spectat. Ad nautārum casās properat.

Nautārum fīliae perterritae, "Cum pīrātīs," inquiunt, "est Iūlia tua."

Magna est īra agricolae. Galeam et hastam raptat. Nautae nāviculam suam agricolae dant. Nautae quoque galeās et hastās raptant, et cum agricolā ad pīrātārum nāviculam properant.

Tum agricola pīrātās vocat. "Ubi," inquit, "est fīlia mea?"

Pīrātae, "Fīlia tua," inquiunt, "in nāviculā nostrā est."

Tum agricola pecūniam multam pīrātīs dat. Pīrātae Iūliam ad agricolae nāviculam portant.

____________________

Put these statements in the order in which they are first made

angry farmer

dinner not ready

getting a boat from the sailors

girl returned

grabbing a helmet

grabbing spears

hurrying to the sailors’ cottages.

no flowers on the table

ransom payment

rushing to the seashore

seeing a ship far away

terrified daughters

The daughters tell the farmer where Julia is.

The farmer asks his daughter where she is.

The farmer asks the pirates where his daughter is.

The pirates tells the farmer where his daughter is.

08.01.25; level 1; topic; school [18]; sports and exercise [6]; Comenius; games

“What you lose on the Merry-Totters, you gain on the roundabouts”

I like using extracts from Comenius’ work; apart from the vast range of Latin vocabulary the book provides, the illustrations give you an insight into a child's perspective. They would have known all these games, and I can imagine them pointing to them in the picture and probably wishing they were playing them rather than sitting in a classroom! I’m not too sure about a blowpipe and bow in a playground.

A single page of Comenius’ work is packed with information and, despite some of the obvious 17^th century references (which are explained in the notes), the vocabulary is very useful in talking about games, and much of it goes way back to the Mediaeval and Classical periods.

Puerī solent lūdere │ Boys are accustomed to playing [= usually play]

vel Globīs fictilibus, 1. │ either with bowling-stones

vel iactantēs Globum, 2. │ or throwing a bowl

ad Conās, 3. │ at nine-pins

vel mittentēs Sphærulam │ or striking a ball

per Annulum, 5. │ through a ring

Clāvā, 4. │ with a bandy (club)

versantēs Turbinem, 6. │ scourging [= whipping] i.e. spinning a top

Flagellō, 7. │ with a whip

vel iaculantēs Sclopō, 8. │ or shooting with a trunk [= blow-pipe; ‘pea-shooter’]

& Arcū, 9. vel incīdentēs │ and a bow, or going

Grallīs, 10. vel │ upon stilts, or

super Petaurum, 11. / sē agitantēs & oscillantēs. │ getting excited and swinging themselves on a merry-totter [= swing]

[i]

lūdī puerīlēs: boys’ games (or children’s games); although the noun puer and the adjective puerīlis are most often translated as boy and boyish (which the title states), the term can refer to both a male and female child and the adjective puerīlis can also translate as ‘youthful’

soleō, -ēre [2]: be accustomed [+ infinitive: to doing something]

• Puerī solent lūdere … │ Boys (children) are accustomed to playing = usually play

fictilis, -e: made of clay, ceramic, earthenware

globus, -ī [2/m] any round object

• Puerī globīs fictilibus [ablative] lūdunt │ The boys (children) play with bowling stones

iactō, -āre, -āvī [1]: throw

• Globum ad *conās* iactant. │ They throw a ball at the nine-pins (bowling pins).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine-pin_bowling

*I’m unsure why Comenius used a feminine form to refer to the bowling pins; it isn’t listed anywhere. The term referring to any form of ‘cone’ shape is:

cōnus, -ī [2/n]: cone; cōnīs lūdō [3]: (New Latin) I go bowling

images: [i] Roman boys and girls playing some form of ball game (possibly harpastum; see previous post [ii] Mediaeval bowling (1468)

[ii]

ān(n)ulus, -ī [2/m]: ring

clāva, -ae [1/f]: (CL); club; (New Latin) club bent at the bottom for hitting a ball; it is used to refer to a type of hockey stick but is listed in the New Latin lexicon as golf club

sphaerula, -ae [1/f]: small ball

• Puer sphaerulam ¦ per annulum ¦ clāvā ¦ mittit. │ The boy sends the small ball ¦ through the ring ¦ with a club.

[iii]

flagellum, -ī [2/n]: whip

turbō, turbinis [3/m] spinning top

versō, -āre, -āvī [1]: keep turning

• Puer turbinem flagellō versat. │ The boy keeps the top spinning with a whip.

Images: [i] Extract from ‘Children’s Games’ (1559) by Pieter Brueghel the Elder; [ii] Ancient Roman spinning top (Egypt; 1^st – 3^rd century AD); by G.dallorto - Own work, Attribution, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31342380

[iv]

arcus, -ūs [4/m]: bow

iaculor, iaculārī: (deponent verb) throw; hurl; used here to mean ‘shoot’

• Sclopō* vel arcū iaculantur │ They shoot with a “trunk” or a bow

*The image shows the boy using some form of blow-pipe / pea-shooter, translated as “trunk” presumably since it’s wooden and cylindrical. The origin of the word is unclear but appears to be related to: stloppus, -ī [2/m], a slap (the sound produced by striking upon the inflated cheek) [Lewis & Short]; also listed as scloppus in Gaffiot); variant forms appear in manuscripts including sclop- and scoph-, an onomatopoetic word conveying the sound; it is found in Italian [i] schioppo (gun) and [ii] scoppio (explosion) 

There is a contemporary reference to it as meaning 'gun' by Diego Collado, a Spanish Christian missionary (1587 – 1638):

illīs etiam ministrāvī quaerendō vīctū alia, sclopōs, et glandēs ... │ For obtaining my livelihood, I also procured other stuff for them: guns and bullets ...

sclopētum, -ī [2/n] (New Latin) rifle; gun; firearm

[v]

incīdō, -ere [3]: fall / drop upon something i.e. picture the boy getting on to the stilts! He would probably use some form of ladder in order unsteadily to “drop down” upon them.

grallae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: (CL) stilts; used by actors, but, as one image shows – not only by actors

Images: [i] stilt walkers (Greece; 6^th century BC); [ii] extract from the Magerius mosaic (Roman; 3^rd century AD; discovered in Tunisia) depicting venatores, professional wild animal hunters performing at the Games; this one makes life difficult for himself by fighting on stilts; [iii] they did like to exaggerate in the Middle Ages!

[vi]

agitō, -āre, -āvī [1]: excite

oscillō, -āre, -āvī [1]: swing

You learn something new every day, and sometimes it’s an English word!

petaurum, -ī [2/n]: (CL) stage or springboard used by tumblers and ropedancers; (here) a swing or, far more nicely expressed in the 17^th century, a Merry-Totter

Puerī sē agitant vel sē oscillant super petaurum │ The boys excite themselves [= get excited] and swing themselves on the swing.

Image: Mediaeval “merry-totters” (early 14^th century);  judging by the images, the boys in the 14^th and 17^th century don’t look that merry.

Level 2; the passive voice [17]; future passive [3]; 3rd, 3-iō, 4th conjugation [1]; forms

Image #1: The challenge here is not so much recognising the passive forms, because the same endings are used, but recognising the stem vowels; there is no -bō / -bi- / -bu- to help you. Therefore, it’s worth looking again at the stem vowels which mark the future tense active before dealing with the passive.

Image #1: The future tense of 3^rd, 3-iō and 4^th conjugation active verbs were discussed here:

https://www.facebook.com/share/p/BG5W2SgnvyKNUcpc/

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/120524-review-future-tense-4-future.html

Focus on the stem vowels before the future tense endings are added.

Images #2 - 4: the future passive is then formed by using the same endings as for all other tenses and conjugations discussed so far:

Latin tutorial video on all forms of the future passive: