24.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [11]: plūs

Pause for thought: this post looks at three features of one word, namely plūs:

[i] what it means, [ii] how it is used – and not used, and [iii] how it is formed i.e. its declension

It is a very good example of the need to decide how far you want to go when learning a particular aspect of Latin. What it means in terms of passive reading is the crucial point because, regardless of its different forms and ways in which it is used, the main aim is to recognise it and to know its meaning. When I started I focused on [i] and [ii]. I vaguely familarised myself with the endings i.e. I took a look at them but didn’t sit down and learn them.

As has been mentioned so often before, you can become more secure with the endings of Latin when reading the language in context. Look at the quotations and phrases below from two different perspectives: pretty much every example of plūs – regardless of its form - translates as ‘more’; leave the endings until later.

Another point to note: a declension table will give you all the forms, but some forms are very rare – and, as the table shows – there are occasions when one does not exist i.e. it is not attested anywhere. As Orwell (sort of) stated: “All endings are equal, but some endings are more equal than others.”

You need to find your own “level” in any language: you can simply remember that plūs means ‘more’ and move on, or you can use the notes to dig a little deeper.

plūs: more; it is the comparative form of multus, -a, -um (much)

Note: While Modern French uses plus + the adjective to form comparatives e.g. plus grand (bigger) and plus intéressant (more interesting), Latin does not use plūs in that way: you cannot say *plūs altus* or *plūs pulcher* to express taller or more  beautiful.

[1] In the singular, it functions as a noun:

paulō plūs quam mille passūs (Livy) │ a little more than 1,000 paces [= a Roman mile]

Cicero in the prosecution case against Verres:

… arātōrēs vī et metū coāctōs Aprōniō multō plūs quam dēbuerint dedisse,  │ … the cultivators, coerced by violence and fear, gave much more to Apronius than they owed

In the singular it is also used with another noun in the genitive case to express more of something:

plūs vīnī: more wine; note the French equivalent which replaces the genitive case with ‘de’ (of): plus de vin i.e. literally ‘more (of) wine’

plūs pecūniae habēre │ to have more money

plūs malī quam bonī adferre (Cicero) │ to bring more bad than good

[2] In the plural, plūrēs functions as an adjective agreeing with the noun i.e. it does not govern the genitive in the way that plūs does. 

The translation may not always specifically express “more” but some term referring to “a (fairly) great number” or, depending on context, ‘too many’:

ē plūribus ūnum: out of many, one

[3] When expressing ‘more’ with plural nouns, either [i] plūs + genitive plural or [ii] plūrēs agreeing in case with the noun. This is similar to English.

[i] Plūs ¦ nummōrum invēnimus. │ We found more (of the) coins.

[ii] Plūrēs nummōs invēnimus. │ We found more coins.

Examples:

[i]

Itaque domī gaudet, plūs in diē nummōrum accipit, quam alter patrimōnium habet. (Petronius: Satyricon) │ So he rejoices at home and receives more coins in a day than another person has as a whole fortune.

Plūs tamen hostium fuga quam proelium absūmpsit; (Livy)│ Yet more of the enemy perished in flight than in the battle

plūs voluptātum habēre quam dolōrum (Cicero) │ to have more (of) pleasures than (of) pains

A fairly loose translation of a line from Juvenal:

Aspice portūs et plēnum magnīs trabibus mare: plūs hominum es iam in pelagō. Look at our ports, our seas, crowded with big ships ! The men at sea now outnumber those on shore [i.e. more men]

[ii]

… cum ōrātōrēs duo aut plūrēs populī iūdiciō probantur (Cicero) │ … when two or more speakers are judged by the people

Quid ego plūra dīcam? (Cicero) │ What more (words) am I to say?

In these last two examples, note how the translation may not be "more" but rather some general expression of a large number which can vary depending upon context:

Iste petit ā rēge et ¦ eum plūribus verbīs ¦ rogat ut id ad sē mittat (Cicero) │ He begs the king, and ¦ entreats him most earnestly [= asks him with very / too many words] ¦ to send it to him

Inde plūrium diērum praeparātīs cibāriīs cōnsilium erat īre ad hostem (Livy)  │ From there, after several days' rations had been prepared, the plan was to march against the enemy.

23.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [7]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [3]

pestis, -is [3/f]: the term referring to a plague such as the Black Death, the bubonic plague pandemic in the mid-14^th century

Yersinia Pestis: a species of plague bacillus causing the bubonic plague

Just out of interest – because some fascinating images do crop up when you’re looking at this kind of topic – I’ve added an image that has nothing to do with Latin but everything to do with pestis: a Bill of Mortality, indicating the number of deaths and injuries – in one week – in London in 1665. Here are a few edited highlights with a strong suggestion that, if they didn’t know what had caused a death, they probably made it up. But it’s the figure for the plague that’s terrifying:

aged: 54

cancer: 2

“frighted”: 1

“grief”: 1

“lethargy”: 1

murthered at Stepney: 1

“sore legge”: 1

“suddenly”: 1

And …

plague: 3880

It wasn’t the bell (pestem fugō) – or the terrifying plague doctor - that chased away the Plague: a fire broke out in a baker’s shop in Pudding Lane the following year which burned down most of London and, in the process, killed all the rats that were carrying the pestis.

22.11.24: Level 1; Maxey [17] (2)

[2] Vesperī puella nōn it. Māne it. Pater cum puellā it. Māne in carrō pater et fīlia per agrōs et silvam properant. Equum habent. Equus bene currit quod est validus. Ā dextrā et ā sinistrā multa videt. Omnēs rēs sunt grātae. Subitō in agrō quattuor animālia videntur. Pater, sagittārius bonus, arcum et sagittās habēre cupit, sed puella est laeta quod nūlla tēla sunt in carrō quod animālia sunt amīcī Annae.

1. When does the girl go? [1]
2. Who goes with her? [1]
3. How do they travel? [1]
4. What places do they go through? [2]
5. What two pieces of information are given about the horse? [2]
6. The girl sees a lot of pleasant things: where? [2]
7. What are seen in the field? [1]
8. What do you think the father wants to do? How do you know? [4]
9. Why is the girl happy? [2]

22.11.24: Comenius; in a 17th century school [2]: vocabulary and notes

The text was written in 1658 despite which there is a good amount of vocabulary related to schools that can still be used:

[A]: nouns

cathedra, -ae [1/f]: chair, but specifically a chair with arms, a chair that symbolised authority initially for a teacher and later for a bishop; the noun cathedral is derived from this i.e. the principal church, the seat of the bishop / archbishop

classis, -is [3/f]: we most associate this word in Classical Latin with a fleet of ships, but it also had the meaning of ‘class’ in the sense of dividing people into groups

crēta, -ae [1/f]: chalk

discipulus, -ī [2/m]: pupil [m]; also discipula, -ae [1/f]: pupil [f]

menda, -ae [1/f] or mendum, -ī [2/n]: fault; error

officīna, -ae [1/f]: this is expressed nicely both in Latin and in 17^th century English; officīna in CL referred to a place where something was manufactured (hence Engl. workshop) as opposed to taberna, -ae [1/f], a shop where something was sold. Comenius compares a school to a workshop, a place where “young wits are fashioned to virtue” i.e. he conveys the idea of young minds being constructed / shaped / formed in a “workshop”.

praeceptor, praeceptōris [3/m]: teacher; a synonym for the more familiar magister, magistrī [2/m] or magistra, -ae [1/f] which have the same meaning; the English noun preceptor also means a teacher but has fallen into disuse in relation to schools. However, it is still used in the field of Medicine to refer to an experienced medical practitioner who supervise students.

schola, -ae [1/f]: school; also: lūdus, -ī [2/m]

subsellium, -ī [2/n]: a low bench; a ‘form’ (now archaic); Some schools still refer to ‘Forms’ rather than year groups; the term Sixth Form is still in common use in the UK to refer to the two years of school for 16+ students;

in Ancient Rome the word was used to refer to any kind of bench or row of seats e.g. in the theatre or the Senate

the word also referred to a judge’s seat hence the expression “called / summoned to the bench”

tabella, -ae [1/f]: a small board / tablet for writing; this is the diminutive (smaller version) of tabula, -ae [1/f]: a tablet covered in wax for writing; here tabella is marked in the image as referring to a blackboard

[B]: verbs

castīgō, -āre, -āvī [1]: punish

Note

[i] the passive use: castigantur │ they are punished

[ii] the ablative of means / instrument i.e. what is used to punish them:

hī castīgantur ferulā (baculō) et virgā │ they are punished with [by means of] a rod and a switch [a slender plant stem]

cōnfābulor, -ārī: converse; talk together; this type of verb is called a deponent verb which has not yet been done in the group and it will be looked at in more detail later; for the moment, take a look at the two lads at the back of the class who are not paying attention!

corrigō, -ere, corrēxī [3]: correct

discō, -ere, didicī [3]: learn

distinguō, -ere, distīnxī [3]: divide

Note the passive use: schola distinguitur in classēs │ the school is divided into forms (classes, year groups)

doceō, -ēre, docuī [2]: teach

fōrmō, -āre, -āvī [1]: shape; fashion

Note the passive use: novellī animī ad virtūtem fōrmantur │ young minds are fashioned / shaped to virtue

gerō, -ere, gessī [3]: has several meanings including ‘manage’ or ‘conduct’; here as a reflexive verb i.e. gerunt sē: they behave themselves or, in this case, don’t behave themselves:

petulāns, petulantis: impudent; petulant; wanton

negligēns, negligentis: careless; indifferent; also: neglegēns, neglegentis

A feature of Latin is the use of adjectives where we would expect and which the translator renders as adverbs:

gerunt sē petulantēs et negligentēs │ they behave themselves wantonly and carelessly.

sedeō, -ere, sēdī [3]: sit

scrībō, -ere, scrīpsī [3]: write

praescrībō,-ere, -scrīpsī [3]: put down in writing

Note the passive use: Quaedam praescrībuntur illīs. │ Some things are put down in writing for them i.e. written in front of them (on the board).

recitō, -āre, -āvī [1]: recite

stō, stāre, stetī [1]: stand

Note!

baculum,-ī [2/n]: cane; stick

ferula, -ae [1/f]: stick; rod

virga, -ae [1/f]: rod; switch for flogging

They all have a similar meaning, and they all have a similar effect! They’re sitting on the table in the image as an ominous reminder to those potentially wanton and careless 17^th century schoolboys! 

21.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [6]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [2]

vēritās, vēritātis [3/f]: truth

all 3^rd declension nouns ending in -tās are feminine and they all form their stem in the same way:

vēritās, vēritāt¦is

lībertās, lībertātis [3/f]: freedom; liberty

tempestās, tempestātis [3/f]: storm

in vīnō vēritās: in wine [there is] truth

A bunch of Mediaeval drunks: I’m not sure what “truth” the gentleman in the first image wants out of her, but she doesn’t seem too happy about it!

And, judging by some of the other images, getting wasted on wine may have made people not so much truthful, but stupid!

20.11.24: level 2 degrees of comparison [10]: translation practice

Complete the translations with the missing words and phrases listed below.

1. Ego beātior sum ¦ illō. │ I’m __________ ¦ __________.
2. Fīlius noster nunc aegrior est quam erat. │ Our son is now __________ than he was.
3. Urbs frequentior est quam rūs. │ The city is __________ crowded __________ the countryside.
4. Vir fortior nōn capiētur et interficiētur. │ A __________ man will not be captured and killed.
5. Rēx multō prudentior quam frāter est. │ The king is __________ than his brother.
6. Nihil libertāte melius est  │ Nothing is better __________.
7. Tam dīves quam Croesus est. │ He is __________ as Croesus.
8. Ille nōn tam altus quam hic est.  │ That man is not as __________ this one.
9. Quantō gravius bellum est, tantō territior populus oppidī est. │ __________ serious the war, __________ are the people of the town.
10. Cuius vultus pulchrior vidētur? │ Whose face seems __________?
11. Saeviorne dea est quam illa? │ Is the goddess __________ than __________?
12. Sextus est paulō minor quam Mārcus. │ Sextus is __________than Marcus.
13. Hic discipulus est minus diligēns quam ille. │ This pupil is __________ hard-working than that one. 

a little smaller; as wealthy; crueller; less; more; more blessed; much wiser; prettier; sicker; tall as; than; than freedom; than he (is); that one; the more; the more frightened

20.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [9]; ablative of degree of difference with multō, paulō etc.

The adverb multō ‘by much’, originally an ablative of multus, is used when emphasising the amount of difference; in grammar this is known as the ablative of degree of difference i.e. by how much something / someone is taller, wider, richer etc.

Rēx multō fortior quam frāter est. │ The king is much / far braver than his brother.

Ego in terram eō multō pulchriōrem.  │ I am going to a much more beautiful country.

Horātia multō prūdentior est quam cēterae. │ Horatia is much wiser than the others.

Examples of other adverbs which function in the same way are:

[i] paulō: by a little

haec quaestiō paulō difficilior est │ this problem is a little more difficult

[ii] tantō: by so much; tantō melior / melius │ all (so much) the better

'tantō melior' inquit 'Massa, dōnō tibi cālīgās'. (Petronius) │ “Better than ever, Massa,” he said, “I will give you a pair of boots.”

[iii] dīmidiō:  by half; dimidio brevius │ shorter by half; half as short

Hibernia īnsula, dīmidiō minor ut exīstimātur quam Britannia (Caesar) │ Ireland, smaller, as is reckoned, than Britain, by one half

[iv] aliquantō: by a little (somewhat); considerably

Johannes Jonstonus’s 300 page work on birds published in 1657 has a superb set of illustrations. In the descriptions of the birds there are many good examples of comparatives and the use of aliquantō:

Masculus aliquantō longior est, corpore, collō ac cristā ampliōrī. Rōstrum fēminae brevius est … [Johannes Jonstonus: Historiae naturalis de avibus (1657)] │ The male is somewhat longer, with a larger body, neck, and crest. The female's beak is shorter … 

Latin tutorial: ablative of degree of difference

19.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [5]: proverbs, quotations and sayings; notes [1]

ars, artis [3/f]: art; skill > English derivative: art

homō, hominis [3/m]: man > Engl. deriv: hominid, a term used in the classification of species to refer both to non-human primates and to humans

lūx, lūcīs [3/f]: light> Engl. deriv: lucid

pōns, pontis [3/m]: bridge; also the deck of a ship > an interesting English derivation is the town name Pontefract in West Yorkshire from pōns, pont¦is (bridge) + frāctus (broken)

virtūs, virtūtis [3/f]: manliness; courage; virtue; goodness, a key personality trait in the Roman psyche and is freqently referred to in literature

3^rd declension nouns in -tūs are feminine and form their stem in the same way:

virtūs, virtūt¦is

iuventūs, iuventūtis [3/f]: youth

senectūs, senectūtis [3/f]: old age

servitūs, servitūtis [3/f]: slavery

[1] ars grātiā artis: art for the sake of art; the English phrase was taken from French l’art pour l’art rather than a Latin version which is used by MGM studios as their motto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake

[2] homō trium litterārum: a man of three letters; the phrase appears in Plautus’ play “Aulularia” (The Little Pot, but sometimes entitled as “The Pot of Gold”); the three letters to which the character is referring make up the word “thief”: fūr (fūr, -is [3/m])

[3] post tenebrās lūx: after the darkness light

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_tenebras_lux

Noctem vertērunt in diem, et rūrsum post tenebrās spērō lūcem. (Vulgate: Job 17.12)│ They have turned night into day, and again after the darkness I hope for light [Note: the translation is not from any standard English version but a word for word of the Latin in the Vulgate]

[4] pōns asinōrum: the bridge of asses;  the wikipedia article goes into detail as to why this particular term is used in geometry to refer to a feature of an isosceles triangle is given this name:

There are two common explanations for the name pons asinorum, the simplest being that the diagram used resembles a physical bridge. But the more popular explanation is that it is the first real test in the Elements of the intelligence of the reader and functions as a "bridge" to the harder propositions that follow.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pons_asinorum

[5] virtūs mīlle scūta: virtue [is equal to] a thousand shields

18.11.24: Level 1; Maxey [17] (1)

Complete the Latin text using the English translation and with the words listed below. Note that the order of words is different in certain sentences and the numbering is marked in bold.

[1] Haec est agricolae fīlia [1] __________ nōmen est Anna. In casā est. [2] __________ facit? Ā casā [3] __________ parat. [4] __________ aliquis ad iānuam casae [5] __________ et epistulam [6] __________. Anna iānuam [7] __________. Tum epistulam [8] __________ ad [9] __________, [10] __________ epistulam [11] __________, portāvit. [12] __________ Anna [13] __________ oppidum īre parat. Hīc habitat amīca Annae, Iūlia [14] __________. Anna [15] __________ Iūliā ad oppidum [16] __________. Anna est [17] __________ et saltat. [18] __________ nōn invītātur et Anna cum [19] __________ nōn [20] __________. Oppidum est magnum [21] __________ puella perīculum nōn [22] __________ [23] __________ hoc oppidum est locus [24] __________ et puella est [25] __________.

This is the farmer’s daughter [1] whose name is Anna. She’s in the cottage. [2] What is she doing? She’s getting ready [3] to go from the cottage.  [4] Yesterday somebody [5] came to the door of the cottage and [6] brought a letter. Anna [7] opened the door. Then she carried the letter [8] by hand [by (her) hands] to her [9] mother [10] who [11] read the letter. [12] Now Anna is getting ready to go [13] to town. A friend of Anna lives here [14] by the name of Julia. Anna [16!] is invited to town [15!] by Julia. Anna is [17] happy and dances. Her [18] mother is not invited and Anna [20!]is not going with her [19!] mother. The town is big [21] but Anna does not [22] fear the danger [23] because this town is a [24] safe place and the girl is [25] safe.

ā; ad; aperuit; cuius; herī; invitātur; īre; it; laeta; lēgit; manibus; māter; mātre; mātrem; nōmine; nunc; portāvit; quae; quid; quod; sed; timet; tūta; tūtus; vēnit

18.11.24: Comenius; in a 17th century school [1]; text and translation

Notice how Comenius focuses on the key vocabulary by numbering them and relating them to the image.

A School, 1. │ Schola, 1.

is a Shop in which │ est Officina in qua

Young Wits │Novelli Animi

are fashion'd to vertue, and │ ad virtutem formantur

it is distinguish'd into Forms.│ & distinguitur in Classes

The Master, 2. │ Praeceptor, 2.

sitteth in a Chair, 3. │sedet in Cathedra, 3.

the Scholars, 4. │Discipuli, 4.

in Forms, 5. │in Subselliis, 5.

he teacheth, they learn.│ ille docet, hi discunt

Some things │ Quaedam

are writ down before them │ praescribuntur illis

with Chalk on a Table, 6. │ Creta in Tabella, 7.

Some sit │ Quidam sedent

at a Table, and write, 7. │ ad Mensam, & scribunt,

he mendeth their Faults, 8. │ ipse corrigit 8. Mendas.

Some stand and rehearse things │ Quidam stant, & recitant

committed to memory, 9. │ memoriae mandata, 9.

Some talk together, 10. │ Quidam confabulantur, 10.

and behave themselves wantonly │ ac gerunt se petulantes

and carelessly; │ & negligentes

____________________

The text continues on the next page:

These are chastised │hi castigantur

with a Ferrula, 11. │ Ferula (baculo), 11.

and a Rod, 12. │ & Virga, 12. 

17.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [4]: proverbs, quotations and sayings

Match the description with the images A – J:

[1] used by Elon Musk to justify the reinstatement by vote of former President’s Trump account on Twitter; in doing so he was possibly unaware of the original context

[2] used by Cicero: accused Verres of ordering the crucifixion of an individual which, under Roman law, was forbidden; a plea for the rights of a citizen

[3] adopted as the motto for the Protestant Reformation; originally appeared in the Vulgate (Job 17:12)

[4] used in a play by Plautus accusing a man of being a thief

[5] referring to a hidden danger

[6] proverb stating that you’ll speak your mind – when you’re drunk

[7] form part of inscriptions on church bells to call the people and to chase away the Plague

[8] term used in geometry to refer to the opposite sides of an isosceles triangle

[9] a proverb emphasising the power of virtue

[10] art does not need to have any instructive, moral or political purpose or justification

anguis, -is [3 m/f]: snake; serpent

ars, artis [3/f]: art; skill

cīvis, -is [3 m/f]: citizen

homō, hominis [3/m]: man

lūx, lūcīs [3/f]: light

pestis, -is [3/f]: disease; plague; infection

plēbs, -is [3/f]: common people

pōns, pontis [3/m]: bridge; also the deck of a ship

vēritās, vēritātis [3/f]: truth

virtūs, virtūtis [3/f]: manliness; courage; virtue; goodness

vōx, vōcis [3/f]: voice 

16.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [8]; translation of comparatives

The comparative may not always be translated as ____er or more ____ but as [i] rather + adjective or [ii] too + adjective

Where no obvious comparison is being made:

‘Mīles fortior est.’ could equally be translated as ‘The soldier is braver’ or ‘The soldier is rather brave’

‘hoc difficilius est’ / this is more difficult / this is rather difficult / this is too difficult; context will determine whether rather / too + adjective is preferable to a comparative.

If, however, a comparison is clearly being made (with something or someone else) then only a translation as a comparative will be used:

Mīles fortior quam agricola est. / The soldier is braver than the farmer.

16.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [7]; object of comparison (2); [i] tam … quam …; [ii] minus … quam …, and [iii] the bigger the better!

[1] Two people / things being compared may be the same i.e. a comparative of equality. English uses “X is as [adjective] as Y” e.g. John is as tall as Peter. Alternatively, a person / thing may not be as big as someone / something else. In this type of construction a comparative adjective is not used – either in English or in Latin.

To express this idea Latin uses (nōn) tam [adjective] quam …

Antōnius est tam [altus] quam Lūcius. │ Antonius is as [tall] as Lucius.

Tam esse clēmēns tyrannus quam rēx importūnus potest (Cicero) │ A tyrant may be as mild as a king may be harsh

Via Latīna nōn tam longa est quam via Appia. │The Latin Road is not as long as the Appian Way.

Nōn enim tam praeclārum est scīre Latīnē quam turpe nescīre (Cicero) │ For it is not as praiseworthy to know Latin as it is shameful to not know it.

From “In taberna quando sumus” (Medieval)

Tam prō Pāpā quam prō rēge / bibunt omnēs sine lēge │ Without restraint they all drink [literally] as to the Pope as to the king [ = equally to the Pope and to the king; they drink as many toasts to the Pope as they do to the king]

[2] one may be less than as opposed to more than

minus … quam …

Canis minus vēlōx quam cervus est. │ A dog is less swift than a deer.

Mīles minus fortis quam prūdēns est. │ The soldier is less brave than wise. 

English may “play around” with translations of “less” i.e. “The dog is slower than a deer / isn’t as swift as a deer” and “The soldier is not so much brave as wise”.

[3] “The bigger, the better / the more the merrier”

[a] quantō [+ comparative] … tantō [+ comparative] / the ____ er … the ____ er

Quantō pulchrior tempestās erat, tantō fēlīciōrēs erāmus. │ The nicer the weather was, the happier we were.

[b] quō [+ comp.] … hōc (eō) [+ comp.] / the ____ er … the ____ er

Quō pulchrior tempestās erat, hōc fēlīciōrēs erāmus. │ The nicer the weather was, the happier we were.

Quō quis est fortior, eō est generōsior.  │ The braver someone is, the nobler he is.

Quō quid est melius, eō rārius est. │ The better a thing, the rarer it is.

15.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [3]

Match the English and Latin sentences; focus on the nouns in bold since they are all 3^rd declension:

[C]

sōl, -is [3/m]: sun

lūx, lūcis [3/f]: light

vōx, vōcis [3/f]: voice

lēx, lēgis [3/f]: law

Nominative

[1] The light of the moon is silver.

[2] Your voice is loud.

[3] The law is bad.

Genitive

[4] The light of the sun is gold.

[5] The sound of your voice is loud.

[6] I am a guardian of the law.

Accusative

[7] I see the light of the moon.

[8] We hear a loud voice.

Ablative

[9] He is standing in the light.

[10] He attacks the town at first light [= at dawn]

[11] He shouts in a loud voice.

• Cūstōs lēgis sum.
• In lūce stat.
• Lēx est mala.
• Lūx lūnae argentea est.
• Magnam vōcem audīmus.
• Lūx sōlis aurea est.
• Prīmā lūce oppidum oppugnat.
• Vōx tua magna est.
• Sonus tuae vōcis est magnus.
• Lūcem lūnae videō.
• Vōce magnā clāmat.

[D]

cūstōs, cūstōdis [3/m]: guard(ian)

lapis, lapidis [3/m]: stone; precious stone; jewel

pēs, pedis [3/m]: foot

Nominative

[1] He is the guardian of the gate.

[2] The guard defends the gate.

[3] There is the guard.

[4] I am a guardian of the law.

[5] My foot is large.

[6] The stone is large.

[7] The colour of the stone is beautiful.

Genitive

[8] Here is your footprint [= here is the trace of your foot]

[9] The colour of the stone is beautiful.

Dative

[10] The commander gives the signal to the guard.

Accusative

[11] I see the guardian of the gate.

[12] He injures the foot with a spear.

[13] The siege machine hurls a stone.

Ablative

[14] I’m standing with the guard near the gate.

[15] He is standing on one foot.

[16] He wounds the barbarian with [by means of] a stone.

• Tormentum lapidem mittit. 
• Cūstōdem portae videō.
• Pēs meus est magnus. 
• Pede ūnō stat.
• Cūstōs lēgis sum.
• Magnus est lapis. 
• Lapide barbarum vulnerat. 
• Ibi est cūstōs. 
• Hic est vestīgium pedis  tuī. 
• Cūstōs portam dēfendit.
• Dux cūstōdī signum dat.
• Hasta pedem vulnerat. 
• Cūstōs portae est.
• Color lapidis est pulcher.  (x2)
• Cum cūstōde prope portam stō. 

14.11.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; a First Latin Reader (Vincent) [30]

Posteā multōs diēs erant tempestātēs, quae Rōmānōs in castrīs continēbant et hostēs ā pugnā prohibēbant. Interim Britannī nūntiōs ad partēs multās mīsērunt et auxilium rogāvērunt. Magna multitūdō equitum et peditum ad castra Britannōrum venit. Inde Caesar, quia habēbat trecentōs equitēs, quōs Commius Atrebās trānsportāverat ex Galliā, legiōnēs suās prō castrīs īnstituit. Britannī, quī impetum mīlitum Rōmānōrum sustinēre nōn poterant, terga vertērunt. Inde Caesar, postquam agrōs hostium vastāvit et aedificia multa incendit, cōpiās ad castra dūxit.

Atrebās, Atrebātis [3/m]: Atrabatian, a member of the Atrebātēs, a Celtic tribe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrebates

īnstituō, -ere, -uī [3]: set up; arrange

Questions

Six of the following statements are correct:

1. A storm prevented the Romans from fighting.
2. Atrebas had brought cavalry from Gaul.
3. Caesar had 300 horses.
4. Caesar led the troops to the camp and destroyed the fields.
5. Caesar’s troops burned a building.
6. Cavalry and infantry came to the aid of the Britons.
7. Legions were inside the camp.
8. Messengers were sent to the Britons.
9. The Britons asked for help.
10. The Britons could not withstand the Romans’ attack.
11. The enemy prevented the Romans from leaving the camp.
12. The enemy’s fields were destroyed.
13. The Romans could not fight because of storms.
14. The Romans could not withstand the Britons’ attack.

Military vocabulary: verbs

If you’re reading a report in a newspaper about, for example, a crime, the same vocabulary and phrases will come up again and again. The same applies to the many accounts of battles in Latin; vocabulary related to the nouns concerning warfare have already been given in five previous posts:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/08/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-1.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/08/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-2.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-3.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-4.html

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/180924-level-1-military-vocabulary-5.html

Here we can begin to list verbs and phrases that are very common in this type of writing:

(1) dūcō, -ere, dūxī [3]: lead; redūcō: lead back

(2) incendō, -ere, incendī [3]: set (something) on fire; burn

(3) ([i] nuntiōs [ii] lēgātōs) mittō, -ere, mīsī [3]: send ([i] messengers [ii] envoys (ambassadors), people to negotiate)

(4) prohibeō, -ēre, -uī [2]: hold back; prevent; keep (somebody) away from something; tempestatēs … hostēs ā pugnā prohibēbant │ Storms … prevented the enemy from fighting (kept them away from the fight)

(5) (auxilium) rogō, -āre, -āvī [1] ask for (help); English needs ‘for’ whereas the Latin verb is followed by an accusative

(6) (impetum) sustineō, -ēre, -uī [2]: withstand (an attack)

(7) ([i] cōpiās [ii] equitēs [iii] peditēs) trānsportō, -āre, -āvī [1]: transport ([i] troops [ii] cavalry [iii] infantry)

(8) vastō, -āre, -āvī [1]: lay waste; agrōs vastāvit: he laid waste the fields, which sounds rather odd in English but really means he flattened the place!

(9) vertō, -ere, vertī [3]: turn (away); tergum, -ī [2/n]: back; tergum or terga vertērunt: they turned their backs i.e. retreated; were on the run

____________________

Afterwards there were storms for many days, which kept the Romans in their camp and prevented the enemy from fighting. Meanwhile the Britons sent messengers to many parts / everywhere and asked for help. A great multitude / a huge number of cavalry and infantry came to the camp of the Britons. Then Caesar, because he had three hundred horsemen, whom Commius,  an Atrebatian had transported from Gaul, set up his legions before the camp. The Britons, who could not withstand the onslaught of the Romans, turned tail. Then Caesar, after he had laid waste the fields of the enemy and set fire to many buildings, led the troops to the camp.

13.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [2]

Match the English and Latin sentences; focus on the nouns in bold since they are all 3^rd declension:

[A] mīles, mīlitis [3/m]: soldier

Nominative: I am a soldier.

Genitive: Here is the helmet of the Roman soldier.

Dative: He gives the shield to the soldier.

Accusative: The commander sees the soldier.

Ablative: I’m not afraid, for I am with the soldier.

• Dux mīlitem videt.      
• Hīc est  galea mīlitis Rōmānī. 
• Nōn timeō, nam cum mīlite sum.
• Mīles sum. 
• Mīlitī scūtum dat. 

[B] aestās, aestātis [3/f]: summer

Nominative: The summer is pleasing to me [= I like the summer]

Genitive: The beginning of the summer is here.

Accusative: I love the summer.

Ablative: They wage war in summer.

• Initium aestātis adest. 
• Aestātem amō.
• Aestāte bellum gerunt.
• Aestās est grāta mihi. 

12.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [6]; object of comparison (1)

[1] A comparative can stand alone:

The second nose is longer.

[2] A comparative can also compare X to Y:

The second nose is longer ¦ than the first nose.

‘than’ introduces the object of comparison i.e. the person / thing which is being compared.

[3] Latin can form the object of comparison in two ways:

[i] comparative + quam (than) + the person / thing being compared; similar to English:

Nāsus secundus est longior quam nāsus prīmus.

[ii] The object of comparison is in the ablative case without quam

Nāsus secundus est longior nāsō prīmō.

[i] and [ii] have the same meaning

The man is stronger than the boy.

This can be expressed in both ways as shown above:

[i] Vir [nominative] fortior est ¦ quam puer [nominative].

[ii] Vir [nominative] fortior est ¦ puerō [ablative].

Similarly:

Haec via longior ¦ quam illa est. │ Haec via longior ¦ illā [ablative] est. │ This road is longer than that one.

Maior nātū sum ¦ quam frāter. │ Maior nātū sum ¦  frātre. [ablative] │ I’m older than my brother.

Minor nātū sum ¦ quam soror. │ Minor nātū sum ¦ sorōre. │ I’m younger than my sister.

[4] When quam is used the nouns being compared are in the same case:

[i] The walls ¦ of the city are higher ¦ than the estate’s [= (those) of the estate]

Moenia urbis [genitive] altiora sunt quam villae [genitive].

[ii] I  have never seen ¦ a more sensible girl ¦ than Flavia.

Numquam puellam prūdentiōrem [accusative] vīdī quam Flāviam [accusative].

[iii] I  have seen ¦ many braver men ¦ than Achilles.

Multōs virōs vīdī fortiōrēs [accusative] quam Achillem [accusative]. 

[iv] The journey is longer by road ¦ than by sea.

Iter longius viā [ablative] ¦ quam marī [ablative] est. 

Latin tutorials:

[i] comparisons with quam

[ii] ablative of comparison

12.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [5]; irregular comparatives

bonus, -a, -um: good > melior [m/f], melius [n]: better

magnus, -a, -um: big  > māior [m/f], māius [n]: bigger

malus, -a, -um: bad > peior [m/f], peius [n]: worse

parvus, -a, -um: small > minor [m/f], minus [n]: smaller

All four exist in English as derivatives in:

[1] MAJORity and MINORity

[2] aMELIORate: not a common word, but it means to make something better; in French améliorer: to improve / make better

[3] PEJORative (disparaging; belittling) from French péjoratif < Late Latin: peiōrō, -āre, -āvī [1]: make worse < peior

11.11.24: Level 1; review; practice in the cases; 3rd declension nouns [1]

3^rd declension nouns are a big topic in Latin. Below is a list of all the links in the FB group that have dealt with this.

https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/permalink/429662662978341/

These nouns, like any other nouns, take endings but the most the most important point to remember is that the endings are added to the stem of the genitive case. That matters because the genitive case stem is very often different from the nominative. The example shows this:

dux, ducis [3/m]: leader; commander

It is the second form listed i.e. ducis that is the genitive singular and you can see there is a change: dux > ducis. Before endings are added, you create the stem by removing the genitive case ending -is:

ducis > duc-; now you’re ready to go.

This post only deals with the singular forms:

Nominative: dux adest │ the leader is here / present

As soon as endings are added, see what happens:

Genitive: ducis epistula │ the leader’s letter

Dative: ducī epistulam dat │ he gives a letter to the leader

Accusative: ducem occīdit │ he kills the leader

Ablative: cum duce meō sum │ I am with my leader

Sometimes, there is no change in which case the noun will usually be listed as:

canis, -is [3m/f]: dog i.e. there is no stem change

However, most often you will come across nouns that do have the stem change which is why it’s important to learn the noun along with its genitive singular. There are patterns to this, but, espcially at the beginning, it’s better simply to learn them as you meet them without thinking about any patterns of change. Here are examples from the sentences:

No change in the stem:

sōl, -is [3/m]: sun

But …

color, colōris [3/m]: colour

lūx, lūcis [3/f]: light

vōx, vōcis [3/f]: voice

lēx, lēgis [3/f]: law

pēs, pedis [3/m]: foot

lapis, lapidis [3/m]: (precious) stone; jewel

cūstōs, cūstōdis[3/m]: guard

aestās, aestātis [3/f]: summer

mīles, mīlitis [3/m]: soldier

Now, there is a “trick” to this; it isn’t foolproof but it can take you a long way in working out what those stem changes are. Many of these nouns are in English and have been derived from declined forms of the nouns i.e. the stem changes are there:

dux, duc¦is > Engl. ducal; duke

lūx, lūcis > Engl. Lucifer (the bringer of light)

vōx, vōcis > Engl. vocal

lēx, lēgis > Engl. legal

cūstōs, cūstōdis > Engl. custodial

lapis, lapidis > Engl. lapidary (pertaining to stones; a person who cuts stones)

mīles, mīlitis > Engl. military

pēs, pedis > Engl. pedestrian

And so, a good way of getting to grips with these as you go along is to look at the genitive case ending and think of an English derivative; the derivative may not have the same meaning but it will show you what the change is. That won’t work with all of them, but it will work with a lot of them, for example:

ars, artis [3/f]: skill; art

iūdex, iūdicis [3/m]: judge > Engl. judicial

nox, noctis [3/f]: night > Engl. nocturnal

rēx, rēgis [3/m]: king > Engl. regal

legiō, legiōnis [3/f]: legion

And if your family is getting on your nerves, you could drop the /e/ and get rid of them all…

frāter, frātris [3/m]: brother > Engl. fratricide

māter, mātris [3/f]: mother > Engl. matricide

pater, patris [3/m]: father > Engl. patricide